DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, No. 43 


GAMES AND OTHER DEVICES FOR 
IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH 

Compiled by 

W. W. CHARTERS 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, CARNEGIE INSTITUTE 
OF TECHNOLOGY 

and 

HARRY G. PAUL 

PROFESSOR OF THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH, 

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1923 
















DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 


BULLETIN, 1923, No. 43 


GAMES AND OTHER DEVICES FOR 
IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH 

Compiled by 

W. W. CHARTERS 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, CARNEGIE INSTITUTE 
OF TECHNOLOGY 

• and 

HARRY G. PAUL 

PROFESSOR OF THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH. 

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 

Ar *.**,*>■ { 

I(W 1 • . t , « J 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1923 


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ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM 
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PURCHASER AGREES NOT TO RESELL OR DISTRIBUTE THIS 
COPY FOR PROFIT.—PUB. RES. 57, APPROVED MAY 11, 1922 


library of congress 

/ RECEIVED 

JAN 1 I 1924 

DOCUMENTS DIVISION 







CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Preface_ v 

Chapter I.—Subject of verb not in the nominative case_ 1 

Chapter II.—Predicate nominative not in the nominative case_ 7 

Chapter III.—First personal pronoun standing first in a series_ 17 

Chapter IV.—Failure of pronoun to agree with the antecedent in per¬ 
son, number, and gender___ 21 

Chapter V.—Confusion of demonstrative adjectives and personal pro¬ 
nouns_ 25 

Chapter VI.—Failure of verb to agree with subject in number and person. 29 

Chapter VII.—Confusion of present and past tense_ 36 

Chapter VIII.—Confusion of past tense and past participle_ 42 

Chapter IX.—Use of the incorrect verb_ 51 

Chapter X.—Incorrect use of mood_ 57 

Chapter XI.—Double superlatives_ 60 

Chapter XII.—Confusion of adjectives and adverbs_ 63 

Chapter XIII.—Misplaced modifiers_ 68 

Chapter XIV.—Double negatives---:_ 71 

Chapter XV.—Confusion of prepositions and conjunctions—_ 76 

Chapter XVI.—Syntactical redundance_ 81 

Chapter XVII.—Confusion of parts of speech due to similarity of sound. 85 

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/ 



PREFACE. 


Before the war Commissioner P. P. Claxton issued a questionnaire 
to 2,500 teachers, selected through the administrative officers of large 
city systems, asking for the games and exercises which the teachers 
used in correcting the classes of errors which are given as chapter 
headings in this bulletin. Detailed responses were received from 
some 500 teachers. 

Owing to the disturbances due to war conditions, the work of 
tabulation was not completed until last year. At that time the com¬ 
pilers of the information decided that they would have the games 
and exercises tried out by a number of teachers, so that it would be 
possible to evaluate them as excellent, good, and fair; but this was. 
found impractical. Consequently, the devices are presented as sug¬ 
gestions for grade teachers to use and evaluate for themselves. 

The content of this bulletin illustrates a useful method of improv¬ 
ing teaching practice. The compilers believe that if all important 
problems of teaching were treated in the same manner, by collecting 
the methods of solution worked out by teachers in the classroom, a 
great deal of very significant material would be disclosed. If the 
teaching experience of all the teachers of the United States could be 
pooled by a method such as is used here, a great body of valuable 
information would be available for the use of all. 

The past decade has witnessed a radical change in the methods of 
language study in our schools. The old, formal study of grammar, 
with its learning of endless definitions, its minute and often cum¬ 
bersome classification of words, its glorification of diagraming, has 
given place to what we believe are saner methods of teaching lan¬ 
guage. For gradually we have been coming to recognize that correct 
linguistic habits were seldom or never acquired by these older exer¬ 
cises, and that the use of good English is a habit attained much as 
other good habits are gained. 

We have also oome to realise that the child enters the school with 
his language habits partly formed and rapidly forming, and that we 
must take advantage of our opportunities during his very early and 
plastic years to help him establish correct habits of speech. We are 
also gradually awakening to the fact that the formation of even a 
few simple habits of correct speech among our pupils is often a 
task that makes all the labors of Hercules look like the pastime of 
a summer afternoon. When we teach a fact in geography or history 


VI 


PREFACE. 


or arithmetic we are not obliged to battle with a host of other in¬ 
structors proclaiming a false doctrine. The playground, the street, 
the market, and the home are not insisting that 6X7=41 or 43, as 
they are constantly insisting upon incorrect forms of speech. For¬ 
tunately, however, careful investigation, conducted in various sec¬ 
tions of our country, has revealed the fact that, as frequent and 
pervasive as are many of these mistakes, the large majority of them 
fall into a few definitely marked classes, and that from Portland, 
Me., to Portland, Oreg., there is an astonishing uniformity in the 
nature of these errors, especially in the misuse of certain verbs and 
pronouns. 

Naturally the first requirement for effective language training in 
our schools is a knowledge of the mistakes actually made by the 
pupils. This can be gained only by a careful survey of the speech 
habits of the community. Such surveys will, of course, bring results 
varying with the nature of the community; the problems of the 
teacher in the ghetto will naturally be quite different from those of 
her sister teacher in a fashionable suburb. 

After such a survey has been completed, the next task is to decide 
upon the errors which shall be attacked and to assign the attack 
upon a small number of these to the teachers in each of the different 
grades. Much valuable time and strength have been wasted in our 
schools by shooting wildly at every error showing its head in the 
linguistic field. The teacher who has succeeded in helping her pupils 
thoroughly eradicate three or four linguistic errors from their speech 
in a school year may well feel that her labor has not been in vain. 

Next the teacher must bring to bear in every grade whatever device 
or method she can discover for rousing in the pupils the desire for 
self-improvement, for we shall make little or no progress in this 
matter until we have secured the hearty and earnest cooperation of 
our students; linguistic betterment springs from within rather than 
from without. The teacher will collect and use the many effective 
arguments and illustrations she can find which help drive home the 
value of careful, cultivated speech. 

She will also strive to enlist the cordial cooperation of the home, 
which so frequently does much more than the school in forming and 
moulding the pupil’s speech habits. How tactfully and skillfully 
this appeal may be made is well illustrated by the following letter: 

Everett, Wash., January 3, 1916. 

To the Patrons of the Jefferson School: 

No doubt you have noticed a tendency on the part of young people of the 
present day to use very poor, slovenly English, and an inability to express 
themselves clearly and intelligently. 

The bad habit of using seen for saw, done for did, went for gone, and many 
other mistakes, are very common, and could be easily overcome if the home 
would cooperate with the school in the earnest effort the school is making in 


PREFACE. 


VII 


this direction. We are very anxious to have the children in our school use good 
English and are asking your hearty support of the following plan: 

The pupils of the Jefferson School will be considered members of the Good 
Language League, and plans and devices will be used both in schoolroom and 
on the playground to induce them to express themselves correctly. 

If at the end of the term any pupil shows that he has grown in that respect 
and has tried earnestly and faithfully to carry out the above idea, recognition 
of the effort will be shown by presenting him with a card or certificate. 

Accompanying this sheet you will find a list of expressions upon which we 
expect to drill. They seem very simple and elementary, but they must be so 
in order that the pupils shall have no difficulty in understanding them. 

Will you not please make an earnest effort to help your children overcome 
these bad habits if they have them? Hang this list up somewhere where it 
will be constantly before the children. 

Thanking you for the hearty support you are giving the school and urging 
upon you the necessity of visiting regularly, 

We are, yours sincerely, 

Principal and Teachers of Jefferson School. 

The first step in the process of establishing a correct speech habit 
is to focalize the attention of the class upon the right form. Some 
linguistic mistakes are due to the fact that the child has never appre¬ 
hended clearly the spoken word; still more are attributable to the 
further fact that for years his ears have been assailed by the incor¬ 
rect form till he has unconsciously woven it into the fabric of his 
speech. To-day we are hearing a great deal about education by ex¬ 
posure, and nowhere is this very potent kind of training more ef¬ 
fective than in the matter of speech. Consequently, the teacher must 
skillfully introduce to the mind through the eye, ear, and finger the 
correct form which she wishes to make a part of the child’s perma¬ 
nent possession. Through numerous vocal repetitions, through 
jingles and stories she must accustom the child’s ear to “ Catherine 
and I.” Through appealing to his eye, through exhibiting the form 
in writing, and through examples on the printed page, she must 
strengthen this impression; through training the child’s vocal cords 
and his fingers in expressing the form, she must drive it deeper in 
his mind; and then through drill, drill, and ever more drill, she 
must assure it a place at the top of his spinal cord among his un¬ 
conscious but thoroughly established habits of speech. 

In this work she must enlist every possible aid that springs from 
the active participation of the pupil. She must take advantage of 
all the various ways and means of making good English fashionable 
in the school. At times she will utilize her pupils’ keen delight 
in rivalry by matching the boys against the girls, or one-half of the 
room against the other, or she may pit the class against its own rec¬ 
ord by marking in graphic form the progress in eliminating the 
obstinate error, or she may turn to advantage the pupils’ passion for 
clubs by forming a Better English Brigade or a Never Again Club. 


vm 


PKEFACE. 


As the pupils advance to the upper grades of the elementary school, 
they will gradually learn the grammatical justification for much that 
they have taken on faith; and this grammatical approach will offer 
a valuable means of clinching and vitalizing much of the previous 
drill. Yet, after all, drill is the great nurse of habit, and to perfect¬ 
ing and making most effective such drills the wise teacher will give 
much careful thought. The characteristics of a good drill are that it 
be brief, intensive, rapid, shared by all, and often repeated. Fre¬ 
quently it is well that the materials involved should be left conspicu¬ 
ously on the board, both for utilizing to best advantage that inci¬ 
dental education, the value of which is so keenly recognized by every 
firm that advertises extensively, and also to facilitate those rapid re¬ 
views at every spare moment, which play such a valuable part in 
clinching these drills and thus fixing correct habits. The following 
pages will be found especially rich in clever suggestions for varied 
and valuable drills. 

Even more varied and perhaps more interesting than these drills 
are the games here suggested. The characteristics of a good game 
are not far to seek. First, it must offer the lure, the excitement, and 
the interest that children find in their sports outside of the school¬ 
room. The drill aims to keep the attention focused upon the form 
to be mastered, and at certain stages of learning it is of unequaled 
value. But every experienced teacher knows that during such drills 
the pupil’s consciousness is centered upon the proper form, and that 
he will then use language forms correctly which, a few minutes later 
on the playground, he will utterly ignore. A good game, filled with 
life and motion, and bristling with the excitement of competition, 
tends to evoke the pupil’s habitual oral responses. If at such mo¬ 
ments the child uses correct language forms he has gone a long way 
toward the establishment of proper speech habits. Furthermore, 
what he learns in these moments of pleasurable excitement stands a 
better chance of weaving itself into the warp of his speech than do 
forms introduced in the more commonplace drills. In addition to 
animation and pleasurable competition, a good game will be marked 
by its appeal to the imagination. Small children especially love 
games that take them to the land of fancy, to the domains of such 
friends as Mother Goose. Particularly valuable are games that 
utilize the familiar activities of the playground, especially if they 
involve a frequent repetition of the correct language form. Many 
of the games given in Language Game books devote entirely too 
much time to the sport in proportion to the drill in correct expression 
they afford; a good language game is never 96 per cent game and 5 
per cent language. Finally, other things being equal, that game is 
best which permits a large number of pupils to participate a great 


PREFACE. 


IX 


many times and gives a place especially to those boys and girls who 
particularly need the drill. It is hoped that in the following pages 
the teacher will find numerous games which meet many, if not all, 
of these requirements. 

In conclusion, a word regarding some of the forces making for 
better English which fall outside of the scope of the present study. 
Prominent among these may be made the power of the school read¬ 
ers, especially in those selections which embody fine thought ex¬ 
pressed in noble prose or verse. The reader is a much more potent 
force in molding the pupil’s language than has been generally rec¬ 
ognized; and the skillful teacher may augment its power by ever 
insisting that the pupils make their own, during these years when the 
habit of memorizing may be so easily cultivated, splended lines and 
phrases which are rightfully a part of the child’s magnificent lin¬ 
guistic heritage. Again, story telling and other simple forms of oral 
composition are, of course, of immense value in training the pupil 
to express himself clearly, forcefully, and correctly, while the daily 
recitation in every subject may be made far more effective in fur¬ 
thering these aims than most teachers have yet made it. Correct 
English every minute of the school day! 

And shall the teacher stop to correct every error of speech? Of 
course not, especially if the error is one on which the pupils have 
as yet received no corrective drill. At times, however, the error 
should receive summary attention; but when much will be lost by 
interrupting the pupil’s train of thought, such correction may well 
be deferred to a more opportune time. But an error in a form upon 
which the pupil has received ample drill should not escape notice 
and correction. 


I 


GAMES AND OTHER DEVICES FOR IMPROVING 
PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 


Chapter I. 

SUBJECT OF VERB NOT IN THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 


I. STORIES. 

Mrs. A. D. T. Whitney, in Sights and Insights, tells of a lady who, 
passing one day through a London thoroughfare, heard a woman 
calling repeatedly from an upper window. Noticing some children 
playing near, she said to them, “ Your mother is calling you ”; 
whereupon a little girl replied, “ Her ain’t calling we; us don’t be¬ 
long to she.” 

Tell the story of Grace Darling or read it aloud. 

1. Teacher. Wliat did Grace wish to do? 

Pupil. She wished to save the people. 

Teacher. What did she and her father do? 

Pupil. She and her father went out to the boat and saved all the 
people. 

2. Have the children re-tell the whole story without any sugges¬ 
tive questions from the teacher. 

3. Have the first child begin the story and continue with it until he 
makes a mistake in the use of the pronouns. Then have the next 
child go on with it until he makes a mistake, and so on. 

II. DRAMATIZATION. 

(A.) THE SICK DOLL. 

Characters: The Doll, her Mother, the Doctor, the Messenger, the Nurse, the Neighbors. 

Mother. My dolly is very sick. Will you go for a doctor? 

Messenger. Yes, indeed. May I take Neighbor Catherine with me? 

Mother. Certainly, if you and she will hurry. 

Messenger. We will. 

Messenger and Neighbor Catherine meet other neighbors, who 
inquire their errand. 

Messenger. Catherine and I are going for the doctor. 




2 


GAMES FOE IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


(or) 

Catherine. The messenger and I are going for the doctor. 

( Then the various neighbors to one another). He and Catherine 
are going for the doctor, (or) He and she are going for the doctor. 

(B.) AT THE DOCTOR’S. 

Messenger. Catherine and I have come to take you to see a poor, 
sick doll. 

Doctor. The nurse and I will come at once. 

The four meet the neighbors on the way home. They talk when 
the doll is reached. 

III. GAMES. 

SERIES A. 

1. The circus. —Pupils select partners and ask permission to go, 
i. e., “May John and I go to the circus? ” If they ask incorrectly, 
they have to stay at home for that day. Those who ask correctly, 
however, may represent any animal they wish and, forming in a 
procession, march around the room. 

2. The 'picnic. —There is a class picnic in a grove where there are 
swings, tennis courts, a baseball field, a pond for rowing, and so on. 
Each pupil may tell what game he has been playing with his com¬ 
panions. 

3. The journey; or, Over the hills and far away. —Arrange the 
class in two groups as for a spelling match. 

Mary (the first child on one side , to John, the first on the opposite). 
Have you come from far away ? 

John (glancing at the child at his side). She and I came from 
China. Have you come from far away? (This question to Eva, the 
second child on the first side.) 

Eva (glancing at child standing next to her). He and I came from 
Egypt. 

If a child makes a mistake, or is slow in naming a place, he must 
go over to the other side. The larger group at the close of the game 
wins. 

Series B. 

1 . Who Did It? — Each pupil in turn blindfolds his eyes while a 
boy or girl, or two boys or two girls, knock on his desk. 

He asks: “ Who knocked on my desk ? ” 

Answers: “I did it.” “We boys did it.” “We did it.” “We 
girls did it.” 

The pupil then looks about and tries to guess who was responsible, 
saying: “ He and she knocked on my desk.” 


SUBJECT OF VERB NOT IN NOMINATIVE CASE. 


3 


Answers: “ It was they.” “ It was he but not she.” 

Instead of knocking on the desk, the children may touch the 
guesser, may erase the board, or walk around the room. (If the 
guessing of the specific pupils who performed the act tends to make 
the children lose sight of the object of the game, or gives one child 
a longer exercise than the others, the questions may be limited. Thus 
when a pupil has asked three questions, “Was it he? ”, “Was it 
they? ”, “Was it you? ” or made three similar statements without 
having guessed correctly, it might then become the turn of the next 
child to be blindfolded.) 

2. “ Out of Sight, Out of Mind” —John closes his eyes, and a 
child leaves the room. John opens his eyes and asks, “ Who left the 
room? ” Answers: “ We girls sent out a girl.” “ We boys sent out 
a boy.” “ We girls sent a girl from our row.” 

If John guesses correctly the one who was sent out he may guess 
again; otherwise the one who went out takes his place. 

3. Whom Have You Chosen? —Mary leaves the room. Harry 
comes forward and chooses some child, speaking the name so that 
the class may hear. Mary returns. 

Mary. Whom have you chosen? 

Harry. He and I live in Newton. 

Mary may have five guesses, and Harry’s replies must always be a 
statement about the one chosen and himself. The class may join 
the game by answering Mary’s questions, thus: “ It was he,” or “ It 
was not he.” 

' 4. The Hdyers. —A variation of “ What is Your Trade? ” 

Children take turns showing by pantomime what each one and a 
brother or sister do to help mother, such as washing dishes, sweeping 
the floor, dusting, chopping wood, carrying coal, building the fire, 
and so on. 

First child , This is what my sister and I do to help mother. (Pan¬ 
tomime follows.) 

Second child. She and her sister wipe the dishes. If the first ones 
to guess are allowed to answer first each time, the slower children 
will not have as full an opportunity of drill as the others. To avoid 
this, it might be well to call on each child in turn first and then go 
around again calling on the pupils who guess first. 

5. The Corner Store. —One corner of the room may be the store, 
and another corner, home. John and Mary have gone to the store. 
Mrs. Smith calls. 

Mrs. Smith. Where is Mary? 

Mrs. Brown. She and John went to the store. 

Mrs. Smith. Who is staying with you? 

Mrs. Brown. My sister and I are at home to-day. 

At the store the grocer may ask the children questions. 


4 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


Grocer. What would you and he like to-day? 

Mary. He wants some apples, and I want some bread. 

Grocer. Do you want these things sent home ? 

John. No, thank you. Mother said she and I might bring them. 

IV. EXERCISES. 

(A) Exercises which do not include a working use of grammar. 
The method most commonly used is one involving elimination, separa¬ 
tion, substitution, and combination. 

1. By elimination: 

“ Me and Catherine had to go.” 

“ Her and her father went.” 

“ Us girls did it.” 

Omit the nouns. Write the sentences on the board and let one 
child draw a line through the nouns or erase them. The class reads 
the sentences without Catherine, father, and girls. If the children 
do not know the nouns as such, they are sometimes told to leave 
Catherine or her father at home. After the sentences have been 
corrected without them, they may be taken along. 

2. By separation and combination: 

I have to go. Catherine has to go. 

He went. His father went. 

We did it. We girls did it. 

Impress upon the pupil the fact that when in doubt as to the cor¬ 
rect pronoun, he should separate his sentence into two parts an(J 
put himself last. 

Simple actions may lead to the forming of these sentences. Chil¬ 
dren in sets of two or three are appointed to do something about the 
room. They go to the hall, they write on the board, arrange chairs 
in their places, and so on. Then each tells what he and his com¬ 
panion did: 

We girls erased the board. 

Sam and I put the chairs in order. 

Any tendency to say “ us girls ” or “ Sam and me ” may be cor¬ 
rected by means of elimination. A variation of this proceeding is 
to blindfold some pupil. A group then performs some simple action. 
The leader opens his eyes and asks of the various groups, “ What did 
you do? ” “ We boys shook hands.” “ We girls,” etc. 

(B) The children are asked to make two short sentences, later 
increasing to three, containing the correct pronoun. These, then, 
are combined. Further drill is afforded by substituting pronouns 
for nouns and vice versa. 

Mary and Mary’s father. 

She and her father. 

Mary and her father* 


SUBJECT OF VERB NOT IN NOMINATIVE CASE. 


5 


(C) Supplying understood words: 

He is taller than ( ). 

She can do that better than ( ). 

3. Questions serve also to bring out the correct form: 

Who have to go ? 

Who went to Boston? 

Name two people who have gone. 

Two honest boys broke a window accidentally. They wish to con¬ 
fess any pay for the broken pane. What do they say? 

Where did you go this noon ? 

Who else went home? 

Where did he and his father go ? 

Did John and his brother go to the game? 

Did Mary and you go to the concert ? 

4. The appeal to the ear: 

How does this sound to you? Change to the one that sounds 
better. 

Me have to go. I have to go. 

Her went. She went. 

Show how ridiculous the incorrect forms sound. Prepare for this 
appeal of the correct sound by reading selected paragraphs which 
illustrate the correct form and usage of pronouns and also by fre¬ 
quent drills. 

(. B) Exercises which include a working use of grammar. 

1. The children are asked to give sentences about what they have 
done or are going to do and are then told that we use the pronoun 
“I” when representing the person speaking; that I is the subject 
form, called nominative. Then the list of pronouns which may be 
used as subjects is taught. 

2. Declension of personal pronouns. —Some teachers have the de¬ 
clension of personal pronouns memorized. Some teachers suggest 
that it may be thought out, “ after pupils have realized person, num¬ 
ber, and gender.” Place the nominative and objective forms on the 
board in miscellaneous order. Call on the pupils to give the case 
of each. 

3. Application to sentences: 

1. Analysis. 

Diagrams. 

Rules. 

2. Suggested questions. 

What is the subject? 

What is the case of me, her, us? Case of subjects? or 

What is the case of subject? Form of me, us, her? 

What is the subject form? Decline the pronoun. 


6 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


3. As a final test place on the blackboard a paragraph in which 
all the pronouns used as subjects are in the incorrect form. The 
pupil is required to recite from this paragraph, giving the correct 
form and the reasons for correction. Instead of writing in the 
wrong form, it might be better to leave blanks for the pronouns and 
have the pupils fill them with the correct form. 

V. DRILLS. 


1. Short sentences illustrating the correct use are placed on the 
blackboard: 


I did it. I have to go. John and I came at 8 o’clock. 

He did it You have to go. May James and I water the plants? 
She did it He has to go. 

We did it We have to go. When may Henry and I go? 

You did it You have to go. 

They did it They have to go. 

Graee did it 
Mary did it 


These lists are kept on the board, so that the teacher can turn to 
them for a few minutes at the beginning of each lesson. They are 
read by different pupils and then in concert by all in order that 
the pupils 5 ears may be accustomed to the sound of the correct form. 

2. Instead of complete forms, use sentences with blanks. These 
are read first by the best pupils, next by the second best, with the 
most attention to the poorest. 

3. A sentence may be given by each child in which he mentions 
that he and some companions have played a certain game, have seen 
a certain animal, or come to school along a certain street. Each 
one shall mention a different game, animal, or street, for if conscious 
interest is centered on this variation the child will gain practice in 
using Catherine and I automatically. 

4. Sentence building ,—Suggestive words may be placed on the 
board, written or printed on cards, enough for the class. Sentences 
may be built from these words: 


fJohn—Mary’s cousin. Mary—Philip’s sled. 
a ‘ [William—Henry’s dog. Ben—Margaret’s father. 


[We boys. We girls. 

; We teachers. We people, 
f My father and I. My brother and I. 
c * [My mother and I. My sister and I. 


d. 


Harry and (mention your own name). 

Harry and (substitute pronoun). 

Use name of pupil behind you with the pronoun. 

Boys cut wood, milk the cows, make garden. 

Girls dust the parlor, wash the dishes, make the beds. 


The children enjoy this last, especially if the cards are given out 

indiscriminately, so that boys are doing girls* tasks. 



PREDICATE NOMINATIVE NOT IN NOMINATIVE. 


7 


Chapter II. 

PREDICATE NOMINATIVE NOT IN THE NOMINATIVE 

CASE. 

I. STORIES, RHYMES. 


1. Professor White. 

Some college boys, having a forbidden midnight feast, were startled 
by a knock on the door. Cautiously they inquired, “ Who’s there ? ” 
“ It’s me.” “ Who are you ? ” “ Professor White,” came the reply. 
“Aw, go on!” the guilty boys called boldly to the intruder. “ Pro¬ 
fessor White says, ‘ It is I.’ ” 

A reminder of Professor White serves later as a corrective. 

One small student broke herself of the mistake, “ Are these them ? ” 
by composing and learning the following rhyme: 

They are these, 

And these are they, 

That is what I needs must say. 

These are they and they are these, 

Say that is correct now, please. 

II. DRAMATIZATION. 

The Troll and the Three Billy Goats. 

Troll—A rather large child. 

Little Billy Goat—A small child. 

Brother Billy Goat—A medium-sized child. 

Billy Goat Gruff—A large child. 

The big troll crouches in the aisle past which the billy goats 
have to go as though crossing a bridge in search of greener pastures. 

Troll (in a very grumbly voice). Who is crossing my bridge? 

Little Billy Goat. It is I, Mr. Troll. 

Troll. I am going to eat you for walking on my bridge. 

Little Billy Goat. Oh, please don’t eat me, Mr. Troll. My brother 
is coming soon, and he is much fatter than I am. 

Troll. Very well, I’ll wait for him; but don’t you walk on my 
bridge again. 

Little Billy Goat. Oh, thank you, Mr. Troll; I won’t. 

Brother Billy Goat now comes onto the bridge, and the conversa¬ 
tion is repeated. Then comes Billy Goat Gruff. 

Troll. Who is crossing my bridge? 

Billy Goat Gruff. It is I, Mr. Troll. 

Troll. Ah, you are the one I have waited for, and now I shall eat 
you all up. 

53613°—23-2 



8 GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 

Billy Goat Gruff. We’ll see about that. ( He chases the Troll 
away.) 

Thereafter, if a child uses the wrong pronoun the teacher has only 
to remind him that even a billy goat uses better language than that, 
and the next time he is more careful. 

III. GAMES. 

In any of the guessing games the teacher may be “ it ” first; after 
that the various children may be “it,” and a score kept of their 
guesses. 

1. Red Riding Hood and the Wolf. —The children in one row are 
all Red Riding Hoods, while the children in the next row are wolves. 
Red Riding Hoods knock on the desks of the wolves. 

Wolves. Who is there? 

Red Riding Hoods. It is I, Little Red Riding Hood, Grandmother. 
{The parts are then reversed.) 

2. Jack The Giant Killer. —The children in one row play the part 
of Jack, and those in the next that of the giant’s wife. 

Jack. Whose step do I hear? 

Giant's Wife. It is he, my husband; jump into this chest. 

3. The Rainbow. —Seven colors of paper for folding are passed. 

Teacher . Who has the orange? 

First child. It is I. {He comes to the front of the room.) 

When all the colors have been called for and have responded, the 
children are arranged in the same position as the colors of the rain¬ 
bow. The children at their desks are asked, “Who has the red 
paper? ” etc. They answer “ It is she,” or “ It is he.” As each color 
is called, the child holding it takes his seat until the “ rainbow ” has 
entirely faded from the “ sky.” 

4. Who Hid Itf —One pupil is sent to the cloakroom and during 
his absence some one performs one of the following acts: {a) Rings 
a bell; {b) says good morning; {c) cuckoos or recites; {d) draws a 
circle, misplaces book, vase, map, balls; (e) writes a word or sen¬ 
tence on the blackboard; (/) changes his seat; {g) knocks or answers 
“ come ” to the knock; {h) does something previously agreed upon by 
the school. When all is in readiness, the pupil is recalled from the 
hall and tries to guess who it was that did the deed. To add variety, 

; ach one of these suggestions may be worked out as a separate game, 
but each may follow this general plan. The children cover their 
eyes, and the teacher touches Harry, who goes into the hall and 
knocks on the door. John calls, “ Who is it ? ” Harry answers, 
“ It is I.” The children have one guess apiece as to who knocked. 
Then Mary says, “ Come in.” Harry enters and tries to guess who 
called to him, saying, “Was it he? ” Was it she? Was it you? 


PREDICATE NOMINATIVE NOT IN NOMINATIVE. 


9 


Was it they ? ” John could speak to Harry both times instead of 
having John and Mary speak, but when a boy and girl each speak 
it gives an opportunity for the third child to use not only he and 
she in his questions but also they. 

If after several guesses Harry does not guess who called him, his 
turn is over and the game may be repeated. If he guesses correctly, 
he may choose the next one to go into the hall. 

5. Good Morning .—Eight or nine children stand in a row across 
the front of the room. The rest of the children stand by their seats 
facing the back of the room. 

Mary, who is standing in the front of the room, says, “ Good morn¬ 
ing, Bessie.” 

Bessie, recognizing the voice, “ Good morning, Mary.” 

Mary runs to her seat, saying “ It was I.” 

If, however, Bessie answers “ Good morning, Jane,” Jane answers 
“ It was not I,” and remains standing. 

Bessie. —Was it you, Sallie? 

Sally. No; it was not I. 

Bessy. Then it was you, Mary. 

Mary. Yes; it was I. 

Each child should be allowed not more than three guesses; other¬ 
wise, he or she will get all the practice, and that is not desirable. 

6. Who Touched Me? —One child stands in front of the room, and 
hides her eyes. The teacher chooses several other children who stand 
around this child. One child touches her. 

Dorothy. Who touched me? 

Betty. It is I. 

Dorothy. Is it Mary? 

Class. It is not she. 

Dorothy. Is it Betty? 

Class. Yes; it is she. 

Betty then is blindfolded and the game is repeated. If two chil¬ 
dren touch the blindfolded child, the questions and answers may run 
this way: 

Marjorie. Who touched me? 

Tom and Ethel. It is we. 

Marjorie. Is it Billy and Clara? 

Class. No; it is not they. 

Marjorie. Is it Tom and Betty? 

Class. It is he but not she. 

Marjorie. Is it Ethel? 

Class. Yes; it is she. 

As Tom was guessed first, he is the next to be blindfolded. 

The circle need not be formed, and some action other than touching 
the blindfolded one may be performed. 


10 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


7. (a) Who is Knoclring at My Garden Gate? —On© child is blind¬ 
folded. Another child taps or knocks three times on a desk. The 
blindfolded one asks, “ Who is knocking at my garden gate ? ” The 
other replies, “ It was I.” The first child goes in the direction from 
which the voice came and asks “Was it he? ” or, “Was it she?” 
The class answers “ No; it was not he,” or “ Yes; it was he” until 
the right one is selected. The one who tapped is next blindfolded, 
and the performance is repeated. 

(b) Who Seeks an Entrance to my Dungeon Deep? —This may be 
varied by having the first child, the owner of the dungeon, hide 
under the teacher’s desk, while the second one, the adventurer, 
knocked on it and then runs back to his seat. From under the desk, 
the first child may call, “ Who seeks an entrance to my dungeon 
deep?” After the answer “It is I,” the first child may emerge 
and seek the daring adventurer who wishes to see the dungeon. 
'When the adventurer is guessed, he becomes the owner of the dun¬ 
geon. • 

8. Fairy games — (a) Follow the Fairy. —One pupil is the fairy 
and is seated on a chair, her throne, in front of the room. The chil¬ 
dren, her subjects, by a wave of her wand are thrown under the 
spell of an enchantment and can not open their eyes. While they 
are under the spell the fairy passes up and down the aisles touching 
various children. Then she resumes her throne and calls to her sub¬ 
jects to awake. As they awake, the teacher or one of the pupils who 
has been out in the hall while this was taking place, asks, “ Was it 
you that the fairy touched while you slept, William? ” 

William. No; it was not I. 

Fairy. No; it was not he. 

Teacher. Was it you, John? 

John. No; it was not I. 

Fairy. No; it was not he. 

Teacher. Was it you, Betty? 

Betty. Yes; it was I. 

Fairy. Yes; it was she. 

Teacher (when ail who have been touched have been guessed). 
Why did you touch these children with your wand ? 

Fairy. Because I wanted them to follow me. 

The children then follow the fairy, imitating all she does until she 
lifts her wand, when they run to their seats. (The first one to reach 
his seat may be the next fairy.) 

(b) The Fairy’s Wand.— One child, as the fairy, stands in the 
front of the room with her eyes closed and the pointer as her wand 
in her hand. The other children then form a circle around her. 

The fairy says: “ I am a fairy and shall touch Lawrence with 
my wand.” She touches some child. If the child touched is the 


PREDICATE NOMINATTYE NOT IN NOMINATm 


11 


one named, he answers, u I am he ” and takes his seat. If not, he 
says, “ I am not he.” Then the fairy judging by the voice says, 
“ Then you are Ben.” (She might say, “ Since you are not he, you 
must be, or you may be, Ben.”) If she guesses correctly, he answers, 
“ I am he,” and takes his seat; if not, he says, “ I am not he,” and 
the fairy takes her seat. The one touched becomes the fairy. The 
fairy may continue to play the part of the fairy so long as he or she 
makes no mistakes. 

9. Descriptive games. — (a) Whom Am I Describing?—Elizabeth 
leaves the room. The class decides what pupil shall be described. 
WTien Elizabeth returns Louise describes the one chosen. After she 
finishes Elizabeth asks, “ Is it you, Mary ? ” 

Mary. No, it is not I; or Yes, it is I. 

The guessing continues until the right one is found. That one 
then goes to the hall, and the game begins again. 

(b) Whom Am I Describing? (Simplified for younger children.) 

Teacher. Who is the boy with brown eyes ? 

John. It is I. 

John. Who is the girl with the red ribbon? 

Mary. It is I. Who is the boy with the blue tie ? 

Arthur. It is I. 

This may continue until each child has an opportunity to say, 
“ It is I.” 

10. Blindman’s Bluff. —One child is blindfolded, another ap¬ 
proaches. By the sense of touch the blindfolded child tries to rec¬ 
ognize the other. She confirms her opinion with “ Is it Ora ? ” If 
it is Ora, she answers, “ Yes; it is I.” If it is not Ora, the class 
answers, “ No; it is not she.” This continues until the child is 
guessed, when another blindman is chosen and the game begins again. 

11. Button, Button. —( a ) One child may be sent from the room, 
while the button or other small object is passed from hand to hand 
in the circle of children. When he returns to the room he stands in 
the center of the circle and asks, “ Who has the button ? Is it you ? ” 
The child who is questioned answers, “ It is I,” or “ It is not I,” as 
the case may be. The one who has the button becomes the next 
questioner. 

(b) Instead of one guesser, there may be several. One child 
passes about among the rest, pretending to drop the button into each 
one’s hands, and quietly leaves the button in the hand of one child. 
The children guess who has the button, thus: “ John, is it you to 
whom Yerna gave the button ? ” “ No; it is not I, but I think it was 

Kate to whom she gave it.” The one who is discovered to have the 
button becomes the one to pass it. 

(<?) A penny may be given to each row. Pupils pretend to pass 
it on to the one behind them, whether they have the penny or not. 


12 


GAMES FOE IMPROVING PUPILS * ENGLISH. 


Pupils in the third row then guess who has it in the first row, and 
vice versa, and the second and fourth then take their turn. 

Harold. Is it you who has the penny, Frank? 

Frank. No; it is not I. I think it must be he. He indicates an¬ 
other child in the row with Harold. 

Charles . No; it is not I. I think it is she. He indicates one of the 
girls in the row with Frank. This continues until the holders of the 
pennies are all guessed. 

12. The King's Keys. (This is a variation of Button, Button, 
but it is more individual than the preceding variations and hence 
worthy of a place by itself.) 

The children close their eyes and put their heads down on their 
desks. One child holds a bunch of keys called the king’s keys. He 
passes around the room touching each one’s hands, giving the keys 
to any pupil he chooses. When he returns to his seat he says, “ Who 
stole the king’s keys, Harry? ” All lift up their heads. Harry 
stands and says, “It was not I who stole the king’s keys; it was 
she,” pointing to Erminie. Erminie stands and repeats, “ It was not 
I who stole the king’s keys; it was he,” designating some other child. 
The game continues until the child is addressed who has the keys. 
He stands and says, “ I stole the king’s keys. Are not these they ? ” 

13. The Picnic. —This furnishes ample opportunity for drill on 
“ It is I.” 

Teacher. Now we shall have a picnic. Where shall we go? 

Children. Daugherty’s Grove. The dam. 

Teacher. How many prefer the grove ? 

Several children. It is I. 

Teacher. As most of you prefer the grove, we shall go there. 
Now let us prepare the lunch and try to get things that everybody 
likes. Who is it who likes sandwiches ? 

Children. It is I. It is not I. 

The teacher then asks about fruit salad, cake, ice cream, and the 
children answer as before. The children are then led to imagine the 
trip on the cars and the arrival at the grove. They are asked, “ Who 
saw the number of the car? ” “Who saw the most automobiles? ” 
“Who saw a goose in Farmer Brown’s yard?” To all of these 
questions they can make the answer, “ It is I,” or “ It is he or she.” 
When they arrive at the grove they are asked who wants to swing, 
or to slide, or teeter, or play games. To all of these questions the 
answers, “ It is I,” may be given. When the time for lunch has come, 
the teacher asks, “ Who is it that wants chicken ? ” etc. The answer 
will undoubtedly be the same as that given before. 

(The teacher seems to do most of the work in this game as it 
stands. If the children are each asked to suggest some article of 
food, some sight to be seen from the car, or some game to be played, 


PREDICATE NOMINATIVE NOT IN NOMINATIVE. 


13 


at the grove, they will probably enjoy the game more and answer 
with more interest the teacher’s question.) 

14. Games of Hearing .— (a) Who is walking? 

Emma stands in front of the room with her eyes closed. Peter 
walks up and down the aisle. 

Emma. Who is walking? Peter. It is I. Emma. Are you Peter? 
Class. Yes, it is he. 

Peter then comes forward and another child walks. 

( b) Who is opening the door? 

This may be played exactly as the preceding game. 

15. A list of names of objects in the room is written on the black¬ 
board. One child is blindfolded. The teacher points to the name 
of an object and also to a child who runs to that place. When all 
the places are taken, the first child, Frances, with back to the class 
opens her eyes and looking at the list asks— 

Who is at the chair? Gail. It is I. Frances. Is it Gail? 
Gail. Yes, it is I. 

If a child who is sitting is guessed, he answers: “ No, it is not I.” 

16. Postman. —Materials—Slips to be given to the children, each 
with a fictitious name or that of some historical character written 
thereon. A large envelope for the postman’s bag containing dupli¬ 
cate slips. The teacher may choose a boy to be the postman on a 
new route. He should carry the bag of slips. The other set of 
slips are given to the pupils in the room. The postman may leave 
the room while these are distributed. When he enters the room the 
postman approaches a child and asks, “Are you Dr. John Smith? ” 
If the child is not representing the character, he replies, “ I am not 
he.” The postman asks the same question of another child. If the 
second child bears the name on the envelope, he answers, “ I am he,” 
and receives the letter. The postman then selects another letter and 
repeats his inquiries. If in the fifth attempt he fails to find the 
owner of the letter he must ask to be directed to him. The owner 
of the letter takes the postman’s place, and different children assume 
the names. 

IT. Historical Characters. —This game involves more than auto¬ 
matic repetition of correct forms. The ability of the guesser is tested 
as much as anything in framing correct questions. To give time for 
thought, the game will move slowly. 

One child leaves the room. The teacher writes on the board a list 
of names of characters the children are familiar with, as George 
Washington, Cinderella, Christopher Columbus, Grace Darling, 
Robert Bruce, Hercules, etc. As many children as there are names 
in the list come to the front of the room. Each child chooses a 
character and stands in line, but not in the same order that the 
characters are listed on the board. For instance, if Washington’s 


14 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


name heads the list on the board, the child having that character 
may stand third or fourth in the line. This makes the game more 
difficult. The child who has been out of the room returns and looks 
over the list of names on the board. He does not speak the name of 
the character but frames a question involving some well-known 
deed of that character; as to the first child, “Was it you who dis¬ 
covered America ? ” If the child questioned has chosen Columbus 
as his name, he answers, “ It was I.” If he has chosen one of the 
other names, he answers, “ It was not I.” The questioner then 
passes to the next child in line and asks a question concerning another 
character in the list, as, “ Was it you who rode in a pumpkin coach? ” 
The child answers as before, “ It was I,” or “ It was not I,” as the 
case may be. The game is continued until each child in line has 
been questioned. The first child obliged to answer the affirmative 
leaves the room for the next game. Any child in the line who 
fails to recognize a question concerning his chosen character is 
counted out of the game. 

18. Prince of Paris. —This game can scarcely be surpassed for 
rapidity, interest, and much drill in a short space of time. The chil¬ 
dren are numbered, and then the following dialogue takes place: 

Teacher. The Prince of Paris lost his hat, and who’s to blame 
but Number 9? No. 9. What, I, sir? Teacher. Yes, sir; you, sir! 
No. 9. It wasn’t I, sir. Teacher. Who, then, sir? No. 9. Number 
Three, sir. No. 3. What, I, sir? Teacher. Yes, you, sir. etc. 

The teacher should see that the dialogue is kept up very briskly. 
Any pupil who fails to respond when his number is called becomes it. 

19. Arithmetical games—(a) Multiples.—On* child leaves the 
room. The children in the room decide on two multiples of some 
table, as 28 and 56. The child returns to the room and the children 
in their seats say, “ We have chosen two multiples of 7.” The child 
then writes any two multiples of 7 on the blackboard, turns to the 
children, and asks, “Are these they ? ” The children respond, “ Those 
are they,” or “ Those are not they.” The child has four chances. If 
successful in his guessing, he may choose the next child to leave the 
room. 

(&) Sums. Instead of multiples the children may decide upon the 
sum of two numbers, thus, 8+6=14. They tell the guesser the 
sum; he writes on the board two numbers whose sum is 14 and asks 
“Are these they? ” The child is allowed fewer guesses than there 
are combinations to form the sum. 

20. Boohs. Sometimes the children place two or more books on 
their desks. Mary comes to the front of the room and hides her face 
John gives Mary’s books to Will, who puts his own books in his desk. 
Mary then faces the class and asks, “ Where are my books? ” 


PREDICATE NOMINATIVE NOT IN NOMINATIVE. 15 

Class: “ These are not they.” 

Will remains silent, and Mary is to guess who has the books by 
watching the lips of those answering. 

IV. EXERCISES. 

1. Question and Answers. —Exercises which do not involve a 
knowledge of grammar. 

Of the exercises one of the most frequently used devices is that of 
question and answer. Oftentimes the teacher asks a number of 
questions which require the answer—It is I, he, she. Are these they? 
These are they. If the answer to be drilled on is “ It is I,” it is 
well to ask the pupil about something creditable he has done. Some¬ 
times a row of boys faces a row of girls. Each in turn asks ques¬ 
tions necessitating the use of the predicate nominative. “ Who was 
there? Who is knocking? Who is calling? Who was singing? 
Who lost a book? Who closed the door? Was it he who knocked? 
Who takes care of the balls ? ” 

(a) Prone it. —If, in answer to “ Who opened the window? ” the 
answer comes, “ It was me ? ” then the teacher tells the pupils to 
prove it. To do that the pupils take the answer and use it with 
part of the question; i. e., “ Me opened the window.” Of course they 
immediately see that something is wrong, and then the error is cor¬ 
rected. They soon learn that the same word must be used in the 
answer that fits into the question. Like arithmetical examples, if 
it is correct, it will “ prove.” 

2. Inversion. —Closely connected with this means is that of in¬ 
version. By reversing the order of the sentence the pupils may be 
brought to see that the complement may take the place of the sub¬ 
ject. Thus the sentences, It was me, These are them, become Me 
was it, Them are these. Since the subject must have a subject form, 
the sentences become These are they, It was I. The error thus 
becomes apparent. Again, it is well worth while to use the simple 
illustration of connecting the subject and predicate nominative with 
a line showing that they refer to the same thing and must be in 
the same case, as, It was I. In turn, if the sentence is interrogative, 
changing it to an assertion, will often clear up the difficulty. 

3. Ear training. —In all these corrections the appeal has been 
chiefly to the ear. The class complains that the correct form sounds 
wrong to them, or the pupil often says, “ I know it is right to say 
‘Are these they ? ’ or ‘ It is he,’ but it doesn’t sound right.” Accord¬ 
ingly the sense of hearing must be trained by frequent repetitions 
of the correct form. Sometimes short sentences are kept on the 
blackboard for weeks. From these a two-minute drill is given at 
the beginning of each language or grammar period, so that in time 


16 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


the correct form may sound right. When the sentences “ It was me ” 
or “ These are them ” are inverted, the ear is affected by the sound 
and the fault is corrected. 

4. Dictation .—Correct forms may be secured by the use of dicta¬ 
tion. The following sentences are suggested: 

It was I who raised the window. It was I who cleaned the boards. 

It was she who raised the window. It was she who cleaned the 
boards. 

It was he who raised the window. It was he who cleaned the 
boards. 

It was I who collected the books. Are these they who came in late ? 

It was she who collected the books. Are these they who failed in 
spelling? 

It was he who collected the books. Are these they who brought the 
flowers ? 

IV. DRILLS. 

Drills may be read daily or memorized, as the teacher prefers. 

1. This little rhyme may be sung to an improvised tune: 

It is I, it is he, it is she, it is they, 

Who do the best work day by day. 

2. Charts for these drills are as follows: 

It is I. It isn’t I. It was I. It wasn’t I. 

It is he. It isn’t he. It was he. It wasn’t he. 

It is she. It isn’t she. It was she. It wasn’t she. 

It is we. It isn’t we. It was we. It wasn’t we. 

It is you. It isn’t you. It was you. It wasn’t you. 

It is they. It isn’t they. It was they. It wasn’t they. 

Was it I? It was I. Was it she? It was she. Was it we? It was we, etc. 

It is I. It is you. It is he. It is she. It is we. It is you. It is they. 

Is it I? Isn’t it I? I am he. I am she. I am it. 

Is it we? Isn’t it we? Are these they? They are these. These are they. 

Is it you? Isn’t it you? Is it he? Isn’t it he? 

Is it she? Isn’t it she? Is it they? Isn’t it they? 

It is who? It was I. 

It may have been he. It may have been she. 

It may be we. It may be they. 

Exercises for which some knowledge of grammar is essential. 

1. Even a primary child, however, can understand the simple 
rules that all parts of the verb “ to be ” take the same form before 
as after if enough specific examples are given. No child of average 
intelligence would think of saying, “ Me am here ” or “ Him is my 
father.” It can readily be explained to him, then, that following 
words such as are , am, was , were we use the same word we should 
use before these verbs. 

2. One way of explaining the use of the predicate nominative calls 
for a list of intransitive verbs on the blackboard. Among these 


FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN STANDING FIRST. 


17 


verbs are some which may also be used as copulatives. The class 
decides upon the copulatives which are arranged in a column. Next, 
the teacher places before and after each verb a noun, both referring 
to the same thing, as “James is cashier”; “Mountains are barriers.” 
Next the pupils are led to see that because two nouns mean the same 
and because their positions may be interchanged they must be in the 
same case. After a good deal of drill on the predicate noun the 
predicate pronoun is introduced, the nominative forms of the pro¬ 
nouns and their uses having been taught first. 

3. At times the pupils are simply taught the rule, as “A pronoun 
which completes the predicate and means the same as the subject is 
in the nominative case. To complete the meaning of the verbs am, 
is , are , was , were and of the verb phrases ending in be and been use 
the subject forms, never the object forms, of the personal pronoun.” 
After the pupils have been taught this rule, sentences illustrating 
the correct use of the predicate nominative are written on the board, 
and the pupils are asked to select and explain the predicate nomi¬ 
native. 

4. Whenever a mistake occurs, the pupil is asked to analyze the 
sentence, giving the subject, the verb, kind of verbs, the predicate 
nominative, the case form of the pronoun used, and the rule for 
predicate nominative. The pupil then reviews the declensions of the 
pronouns, locating the different cases. At times the class may be 
reminded that forms of to be are not transitive verbs and so can not 
have objects. 

5. Finally, the diagram may be used in order to show the arrange¬ 
ment and relation of the parts of the sentence. After the children 
have been taught the personal pronouns and the rule for predicate 
nominative, they place the correct forms of the first, second, and 
third persons in the predicate nominative place, as follows: 

It/was //— he — she, etc. 


Chapter III. 

FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN STANDING FIRST IN A 

SERIES. 


I. STORIES AND RHYMES AND SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 

1. Once there was a little girl who was very selfish and who wanted 
the best of everything herself—the largest piece of cake or candy, 
the prettiest picture or ribbon, the first drink of water. Quite dif¬ 
ferent from her was Mary, who never thought or spoke of herself 
first 




18 


GAMES FOE IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 


Familiarize the children with this story. Afterwards if they put 
themselves first in the sentence, ask them if they want to be like 
“ unselfish Mary.” 

2. My dog and I went down the hill, 

And there we met my good friend Bili 
Bill and his dog were filled with glee 
When asked to join my dog and me. 

3. (a) “ Suppose you had a friend visiting you, and your father 
one evening offered his canoe for your evening’s pleasure, saying, 
however, that he could take only one of you at a time. What would 
be the polite answer for you to make?” “ I should like to have Oliver 
go first.” “Who should have the vacant seat, you or another? 
Whom shall you serve first at a table?” 

(b) If self should come last in actions, it should come last in 
speech also. When the mistake occurs, the teacher may ask the pupil 
if he is in the habit of serving himself first even in words. 

“Why did you walk behind Olive?” “Because I ought not to 
walk in front of her, unless it is absolutely necessary.” “ Then you 
ought not to stand in front of her in the sentence.” 

(c) Post in the front of the room a picture of two children, one 
of whom, a little ahead of the other, is called Olive, the second I. 
The teacher then has usually to motion toward the picture to indicate 
the error. 

(d) Errors are most frequently made when the pupil is asking a 
favor. Deny the favor on account of the incorrect statement and 
next time the child will try to use better English. To the question, 
“May me and Olive go? ” reply, “Olive may,” and immediate cor¬ 
rection will usually follow. 


II. GAMES. 

1. Hold Fast What I Ghwe You .—The children stand in a circle 
with their hands behind them. The teacher passes around the circle 
with a basket containing two balls, two pencils, etc. The teacher 
puts an object in each child’s hand. 

Teacher. Hold up your objects. Who have tops? 

Mary. Doris and I have tops. 

Teacher. Who have balls? 

Jack. Fred and I have balls. 

Later three or more objects may be used to bring out the series, 
such as, “John, Fred, Frank, and I have marbles.” 

2. The Party— The teacher says, “We are having a party. I am 
the hostess, you are my guests. You must ask my permission to do 
certain things and have certain things. James, you may begin.” 
“May Sue and I have some ice-cream?” “May James and I "play 


FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN STANDING FIRST. 


19 


croquet ? ” “ May Jane and I help you serve the small children ? ” 
“Now, tell me what you have been doing.” “ John and I looked at 
books.” “Caroline, Fred, Mabel, Glen, Janet, Mary, and I played 
drop the handkerchief.” 

3. Shopping. —A set of brightly colored pictures cut from the 
advertisement pages of magazines and mounted on stiff cards is 
placed in a row in the blackboard groove. 

Teacher. I wish some one would go to the store for me. 

John. May Ralph and I go ? 

Mary. May Mildred and I go? 

About eight children shop, and with selected pictures stand in 
front of the room. 

Teacher. Who shopped for me? 

Henry. Tom and I bought minced ham and bread. {He hands 
over the pictures.') 

4. Troweling. — {a) Write on the board a list of countries, States, 
or buildings, numbering each: (1) Capitol, (2) Union Station, (3) 
post office, (4) Mount Vernon. The children on one side choose a 
number and a partner from the other side. 

Bill. May John and I go to the Capitol? 

Teacher. Yes; you and John may go to the Capitol. 

When all the children on one side have asked permission to go, the 
teacher asks the partners on the other side where they went. 

John. Bill and I went to the Capitol. 

The children may tell in similar manner what they saw. 

(b) One child walks up the aisle. The teacher names a second 
child. 

Mary. Where are you going, Philip? 

Philip. I am going to Boston. 

Mary. May Anna and I go with you ? 

Anna and Mary follow Philip while the teacher names the next 
child. 

Harry. WTiere are you going, Philip? 

Philip. I am going to Boston. 

Harry. May J ohn and I go with you ? 

This continues until 8 or 10 have gone on the trip, when the teacher 
leads the way back past the seats of the various children, who drop 
out until all are seated. 

(c) Teacher. You may choose some one to take you to Nova Scotia. 
Two go to the map, locate the place, while the first child says: 
“ Fred and I went to Nova Scotia.” 

Teacher. Who wants to go to Yucatan? 

Catherine. May Elizabeth and I go to Yucatan? 

( d ) Each pupil must name a different city as his destination, say¬ 
ing that he and one or more of his companions have been there. The 


20 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


pupil who gives the name of a town which has previously been given 
is out of the game. 

(e) A similar game has each child ask permission for himself and 
a friend to go to a place determined by the letter of the alphabet 
which falls to him in turn. 

May Olive and I go to Alameda? 

May Olive and I go to Berkeley? 

May Olive and I go to Chicago? 

May Olive and I go to Denver? 

May Olive and I go to Europe? 

5. The game of What is Your Trade? or The Helpers, already 
described, applies equally well here. 

III. EXERCISES. 

1. Separation , elimination , and combinations. 

Mary. May me and Olive go ? 

Teacher. Omit Olive’s name. Use the pronoun with the verb. 
Separate the sentences; now combine them. If you wanted to go by 
yourself, what would you say? 

2. Appeal to sound. 

Mary. May me and Olive go? 

If Mary runs Me and and together, the teacher may suggest that 
Olive is not meant. She may likewise appeal to the hearing by ask¬ 
ing, “ Does me and Olive sound right? ” 

3. Questions and answers. 

Teacher. Who read the paper last night? 

Marjorie answers, combining into one sentence the names of all the 
children who read the paper, “ John, Henry, Betty, and I read the 
paper.” In a like manner are treated such questions as “ Who went 
to the store yesterday?” “Who ate the cookies?” “How many 
made May baskets ? ” The pupils may ask of each other such ques¬ 
tions as “ With whom do you play? ” “ To what school do you go? ” 

“ To what school do Grace and you go ? ” “ To what school do Grace, 
Alice, and you go? ” 

4. Conversational method. —Lead the children to talk to their 
classmates of themselves and the things they have done together. At 
other times let the pupils work together for a short time in pairs and 
then give sentences telling what they did in order to show that they 
understand the correct order. “ John and I found New York on the 
map.” “Mary and I went to the cloakroom.” “Mildred and I 
wrote on the board.” “ Gladys and I passed the pencils.” “ May 
Grace and I go? ” “ May Max and I raise the windows? ” “ May 
Glen and I erase the boards ? ” 


PRONOUN NOT AGREEING WITH ANTECEDENT. 


21 


IV. DRILLS. 

(1) First child. Olive went. May Olive go? 

Second child. I went. May I go? 

Third child. Olive and I went. May Olive and I go? 

(2) Have a row of six or more take this exercise. The starter 
gives “ May ” and adds his own name, as “ May Charles.” Each 
child following repeats what has been said and adds his own name, 
as: “May Charles and Henry,” “May Charles, Henry, and Alice,” 
until the last one adds “ and I go ? ” 

(3) Require sentences to be built from the words in columns on the 
board, as: 

Mary 
John 
she 
you 
they 

(4) May John go? May she go? 

! May John and she go? 

May Grace and we go? 

May Olive and I go? 

May Olive go? May I go? 

(5) Sentences are placed on the board with blanks to be filled 
with the correct pronoun. 


I 

we have the boxes, 
us 

he broke the window, etc. 


Chapter IV. 

FAILURE OF PRONOUN TO AGREE WITH THE ANTECE¬ 
DENT IN PERSON, NUMBER, AND GENDER. 


I. STORY. 

1. Robert Bruce and the Spider .—The correction of “It teaches 
us not to give up when you’re started,” would naturally follow a 
story told to illustrate perseverance. The story of Robert Bruce 
and the spider is one that may be used in this manner. After it has 
been told in class, or perhaps used as a reading lesson, the teacher 
asks, “ What does this teach us? ” The answering sentence, if given 
incorrectly, is, with little people, simply corrected. With older chil¬ 
dren a few sentences on the board, for study to discover the faults 
and to give the reasons, serve better. Then, by way of drill, the chil¬ 
dren are asked individually, “ What does this story teach you ? ” 
“ It teaches me not to give up when I have started.” 





22 


GAMES FOE IMPROVING PUPILS ENGLISH. 


II. GAMES. 

1. Ring on a String. —The familiar “ring on the string” is one 
of the few games used in dealing with the failure of the pronouns 
to agree with the antecedent. The teacher supplies a string long 
enough to reach around the circle. On this string is suspended a 
ring. Each child takes the string in his hand, ready to hide or to 
pass the ring as it comes along. One child is “ It ” and stands in 
the center of the circle. “ It ” says, “ John take the ring.” As soon 
as John has the ring, “It” closes his eyes, and the ring is passed 
along quickly until the teacher says, “ Ready.” The child who then 
has the ring keeps it. “It” asks, “John, where is the ring that I 
gave you? ” If the child has it, he answers, “Here is the ring that 
you gave me.” He then becomes “ It.” If not, the child answers, 
“ I haven’t the ring,” and the guesser continues to try to locate it. 

2. Strays. —Mary’s row goes into the hall. Pupils in the room 
leave articles belonging to them at various places. Jane leaves her 
eraser on a chair, John his cap on a desk, Robert his umbrella in a 
corner, Helen her ring on the ledge. The pupils return from the 
hall, and the game proceeds somewhat like “ I spy.” They look 
around the room. Whoever finds an object out of its place stands 
beside it. When all are stationary the teacher asks, “ What did some¬ 
one leave there, John? ” “ Someone left her ring here.” John then 
asks “ What did someone leave there, Mary ? ” “ Someone left his 
umbrella here.” Mary in turn asks, “ What did someone leave on the 
chair, Robert? ” “Someone left his orange here,” and so on. 

III. EXERCISES. 

1. The Lost Cap. —The teacher sends a child to the corner of the 
room and also sends another child to him with his cap. A third 
child approaches quietly and takes away the cap. The teacher asks, 
“ where is the cap which I sent you? ” thus suggesting the cor¬ 
rect form in the answer. “ I lost the cap which you sent me.” The 
teacher next turns to the child who has the cap, asking, “ Did you 
see the cap which I sent to John? ” The answer may be, “Here is 
the cap which you sent to John,” or “Is this the cap which vou 
sent?” 

- To vary this game the cap is sometimes handed about from pupil 
to pupil. They ask in turn, “ mat did you do with the cap that 
you had? ” “I gave the cap that I had to Charles.” 

2. How many?—In order to establish the number of “somebody,” 
after having Mary take a book, the teacher says to the class, “ Some¬ 
body took a book, mo took it? ” “ Mary,” “ How many is she? ” 
“One.” Next the teacher has John and Mary take the open book 
together, asking, “ mo took the book ? ” “ John and Mary.” “ How 


PRONOUN NOT AGREEING WITH ANTECEDENT. ' 23 

many are they ? ” “ Two.” “ Is it proper now to say, “ Somebody 
took the book?” “No, one must say, ‘They took the book.’” 
“ What pronouns stand for one only ? ” “ His, her.” At this point 

the teacher writes on the blackboard, “ Somebody left — - - coat 

there.” Having the blank filled in as many different ways as possible 
adds interest. 

3. Somebody .—Have Jacob leave his book on a chair and then 
ask, “What did Jacob do?” Write on the blackboard the answer, 
“ Jacob left his book on a chair.” Then while the children’s eyes are 
closed have some one secretly leave a book on the chair. “ Do you 

v know who left the book on the chair ? ” “ May you then use the 

answer on the board? ” “What word can we put in place of Jacob 
and by so doing make the answer correct ? ” “ Somebody.” Make 
the change and then compare the sentence with the sentence in which 
the mistake occurred. “ Somebody left their coat there.” 

4. Somebody Has Been Here .—After the fact has been pointed out 
that the sentence “ Somebody left their book here ” is not only gram¬ 
matically incorrect but false in statement, the children enjoy passing 
around the room in a slow walk and, without the one watching the 
other, leaving a book or less easily identified article, such as a ruler, 
eraser, or a pencil on the desk of a classmate. When all have resumed 
their seats they may rise, one after the other, and say, “ Somebody 
left his or her ruler or pencil on my desk.” The teacher asks that the 
name be not mentioned, but when the children do know the owner 
of the various articles they enjoy the emphasis they place on his or 
her alone. 

5. This Kind. — ( a ) For drill upon “ this kind ” the teacher selects 
a group of tall boys and then a group of short boys and asks, “ What 
kind of boys have we here ? ” pointing to the first group. The teacher, 
again setting an example, asks, “ What kind of boys have we here? ” 
“ Which kind do you prefer ? ” “ I like this kind better.” The same 
device is varied by arranging for games at recess. The teacher selects 
a large, vigorous boy, turns him around before the class, and remarks, 
“ This kind of boy for the tug of war ” or “ I want boys of this kind.” 
“ Now, we want boys for the chinning bar. Look carefully and select 
the kind of boys who you think will do.” “ I think boys of this kind 
will do.” In the same way “ Girls of this kind ” are selected, with 
emphasis on the correct form of expression. 

(Z>) Instead of boys and girls objects may be used. Two piles of 
books of different kinds, or of pencils, erasers, are arranged on the 
desk. The children pass by the desk, each in turn remarking about 
this or that kind of pencils, books, erasers. 

53613°—23-3 



24 GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 

IV. DRILLS. 

1. Words that agree. —Until children have a sufficient knowledge of 
technical grammar to apply the rule for the agreement of a pronoun 
with its antecedent drill on such sentences as the following helps to 
establish the correct form by emphasizing the sound of the sentence: 

They lost the books which you sent them. 

I lost the book which you sent me. 

She lost the book which you sent her. 

It was this kind of book which was lost 

By talks with the class and by illustrations of correct forms on the 
blackboard make lists of pronouns which agree with antecedents in 
person, number, or gender. Have sentences using these pronouns 
given by the class: 

Cap—which, I—me, somebody—his, you—you’ve, us—we’ve, 
they—them, this kind, he—he’s, etc. 

Make a full list and have many illustrations. Drill upon sentences, 
continuing these pairs used as agreeing with one another. 

2. Pronouns and their antecedents. —To correct the failure of the 
pronoun to agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender, 
first introduce the pupils to the relative pronoun. “A studious boy 
is a boy who studies.” “A runaway horse is a horse which has run 
away.” “A frame house is a house that is made of wood.” For what 
do who , which , and that stand? Have many exercises in which the 
pupils select the relative pronoun and point out its antecedent. Next 
use an exercise, “ Mary studies Mary’s lesson.” “ John admires 
John’s sister.” Have the children put in the pronoun instead of re¬ 
peating the name. What is the pronoun? What is the antecedent? 
In what respect are they alike ? Drill. It must be impressed upon 
the pupils that a pronoun is singular when it stands for a singular 
noun, and a pronoun is plural when it stands for a plural noun. The 
meaning of antecedent should first be made quite clear. 

3. Agreement. —(a)“An error in the agreement of a pronoun with 
its antecedents in person is so rare that it needs no teaching.” 

(h) To determine the agreement in number— 

1. Select the antecedent (expressed or understood). 

2. Decide the number of the antecedent. 

3. See that the pronoun is in the same number. 

Such words as the following need special attention: Each, every, 
people, crowd, and so on. 

( c ) “ No special teaching is necessary in giving the correct agree¬ 
ment in gender, although attention should be called to the use of the 
masculine pronoun when the antecedent is common gender. Every¬ 
one has his faults.” 


ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS CONFUSED. 


25 


Chapter V. 

CONFUSION OF DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 


I. GAMES. 

1. These and Those .—The teacher places on the board two col¬ 
umns. One is labeled “ These,” and other “ Those.” A' child is se¬ 
lected to read sentences from which These or Those is omitted. The 
children who know the correct word stand quickly by their seats. 
The child who stands first writes the sentence in its proper column, 
placing after it his initials. In the end those who have written 
the fewest sentences must write original ones using these and those. 

2. Shopping. —This game begins by the children’s choosing a store¬ 
keeper to take care of a store in one part of the room. He has for 
sale pencils, books, pads, balls, marbles, etc. A number of the other 
children are given toy money with which they may buy whatever 
they desire. The customer asks, “ How much are those books?” or, 
“ How many of those marbles do you give for a cent?” The store¬ 
keeper answers, “ Those books are 5 cents apiece,” or “ Those mar¬ 
bles are 10 for a cent.” The customer then makes his purchase, 
always buying more than one and saying, “ I want two of those 
books,” or, “Give me 3 cents’ worth of those marbles.” The game is 
continued until all have made a purchase; then new customers and a 
new storekeeper are chosen, and the game goes on as before. 

3. Who is Thinking of Those Erasers? —John comes forward. 
The class is given a minute in which each child selects something 
about which to think. He must select two or more things of the 
same kind, as the books on the table, the pictures on the wall, cer¬ 
tain figures on the board, or erasers, or chalk, or trees in the yard. 
The things selected must all be things in the room or that may be 
seen from the windows while the children are in their seats. After 
the children have had sufficient time to make their choice, John points 
with the pointer to some objects, as the erasers on the ledge, and 
says, “Who is thinking of those erasers?” All who have chosen 
the erasers answer, “I am thinking of those erasers.” John then 
points to some other things, asks his question, and is answered as 
before. If John points to something of which no one is thinking 
he is “ caught,” and some one else takes his place. Each child, as 
soon as he has named the objects of which he is thinking, chooses 
something else of which to think. 

4. The Fain/s Commands.—Teacher . “ Children, Helen is a fairy, 
and this [holding up a pointer] is her wand. Now, put your heads 
down on your desks and go to sleep. Do not wake up until I call 



26 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


you.” While they are asleep the teacher distributes objects, two or 
three of a kind, on some of the desks where the children can easily 
see from their seats. The teacher next says, “ Wake up, children,” 
and tells them they are to bring the object to the fairy when she 
asks for them. The fairy sits in a chair, called the throne, and, 
pointing with her wand to some objects, says, “ Bertha, bring those 
balls to me,” or “ Charlie, bring me those marbles.” The children 
comment on the articles each time as they hand them over, as 
“ These balls are large,” or “ These marbles are surely pretty ones.” 

5. Where Did You Get Those Pencils? —The class is divided into 
two parts. A child in part 1 must ask a question, using them or 
those, as, “Where did you get those pencils, John? ” John, in part 
2, answers, “ My sister gave them to me.” A child in part 2 then 
asks a question of some one in part 1 until every child has either 
asked or answered a question. If the words are used incorrectly, 
points are scored against the side making the error. The side hav¬ 
ing the lowest score is the winner. 

6. Those crayons are new. —Objects are distributed to some of the 
children, several of the same kind to each child. The teacher chooses 
one child as the “ director,” who stands in the front of the room 
facing the children. The game proceeds as in an ordinary spelling 
match, although only the children who have no objects are chosen 
for the two sides. The “director” then calls Pauline with her 
object to the front of the room and asks one of the leaders to tell 
him something about the articles Pauline has. The leader answers, 
“Those crayons are new,” or “yellow.” If the answer is correct, 
Pauline joins the answering side; if incorrect, the opposing side has 
an opportunity to give a sentence. The side having eventually the 
most members wins. 

II. EXERCISES. 

1. Questions and answers. —To correct the confusion of the demon¬ 
strative adjective and the personal pronoun, the child is asked to 
perform an act; and then the teacher by question and answer trits to 
fix the correct form. Such suggestions include: 

(a) The roses. The teacher says, “ Bring me those roses. Winch 
roses did you bring? ” “ I brought you those roses.” Teacher again, 
“What roses are pretty?” “These roses are pretty; those are 
wilted.” 

(h) The hooks. —Any object may be used instead of roses. Per¬ 
haps John brings his books to the teacher explaining, “I brought 
these books to you.” The teacher may continue the exercise by 
saying, “ Mary, you may take these books to Jane. What did you 
do? ” “I took those books to Jane.” Jane in turn passes on the 


ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS CONFUSED. 27 

books, explaining what she has done, until those seems the only 
natural word to use. 

2. Sightseeing .— (a) The teacher has many objects on a table and 
asks Mary to come to the table, select two objects of the same kind, 
and tell something about them. The pupils take rapid turns. Mary 
says, “These books are green.” John: “These pencils are sharp.” 
Alice: “ These apples are yellow and red.” In a similar manner the 
children are led to give sentences using objects that are not on the 
table. If the objects have been collected from among the pupils, 
instead of describing the objects, the children may hold them up 
asking, “ Whose mittens are these ? ” “ Whose crayons are these ? ” 
The owner of the articles responds, “ Those mittens are mine.” 

(Z>) Instead of the teacher’s giving commands, one of the pupils 
may give them. He may ask the pupils to bring to the desk the 
various articles used in the preceding exercises. Thus, “ Bring me 
those mittens. What did you do ? ” 

3. The Messenger .—A kindred method suggests that one child be a 
messenger. Another child, a foreman perhaps, asks him to take or 
bring these or those articles: “Take those books to John.” The 
messenger does so and must say to John, “ I brought these books 
to you.” Then John tells the messenger to do something, as “ Bring 
those papers to me.” After the messenger has done so and told 
what he has done, he chooses another messenger to take his place. 
Actions already described in the other sections may be used here, 
such as closing that door, opening those books, moving those chairs, 
looking at those pictures, and so on. 

4. Conversations .—The questions and answer or conversation 
method brings out these suggestions for use: 

(a) The teacher first paves the way by asking numerous questions, 

such as, “What kind ,of curtains are those?” “Those are green 
curtains.” “What kind of words are those? ” “Those are whose 
rubbers ? ” “ What are these ? ” “ Those are ears. Those are hands. 
Those are eyes.” “What books are those?” “Those are your 
books.” “ Bring them to me. What do I mean by them? Which 
books do I want ? ” “ Which books do you prefer ? ” “I prefer 

these books.” The class is led to see that them stands for things 
spoken of; and these and those point out particular objects or things. 

(b) Next the pupils are allowed to carry on the conversation 
among themselves. Sometimes a number of objects ready for use 
will stimulate flagging conversational powers. The pupils not 
actively engaged in conversation may be set to watch for mistakes, 
or to count the number of times these and those are used correctly. 

5. Near and Far .—I have three or four objects, as pencil, book, 
pen, and eraser, on the desk. I take one of these objects in my hand 
and point out what I have in it by telling the children “ This is an 


28 cUM&S FOR IMPROVING FUPILvS* ENGLISH, 

eraser,” This is a book,” and so on with each object. Next I develop 
the idea of where it is in relation to myself and the children by 
saying, “ I can touch this book ” and “ How many of you can reach 
this book from where you are sitting ? ” “ Why can I touch it and 
you can not? ” “ Yes, because it is nearer to me.” Therefore we 
use the word this for some one thing close by. 

6. He Saw Them. —These sentences are placed on the board: 
“ John said, ‘ I saw Tom, Frank, and George,’ ‘ Where did you see 
them?’ asked Fred.” A pupil is asked to give the names of the 
persons mentioned in the first sentence, and next is asked for the 
word in the second sentence used instead of the names. The teacher 
then explains that them is a pronoun that takes the place of nouns, 
Tom, Frank, and George, and is used as the object of the verb see. 
It may also be used as the object of a preposition, as “ He went with 
them.” The words me, him, her, us, and them take the place of nouns 
used as objects, never as subjects. 

III. DRILLS. 

The formal set drills recommended for this error are not abundant, 
although there are several exercises whose function is plainlv that of 
drill. 

1. Elliptical sentences. —The use of elliptical sentences in this con¬ 
nection seems to take an unusually predominant part. Many are the 
sentences recommended, such as— 

-roses are beautiful. Where did you get_books? 

Give the red roses to- Charlotte gave_to me. Do these 

roses belong to-? -are fine balls. _roses are mine. 

Yes; mother bought-for me. Where did you buy 

shoes? -word is hard to pronounce. I bought_at my 

father’s store. -kind is usually used. 

2. Model sentences. —Again, model sentences are placed on the 
board and kept before the pupils. Child after child reads them 
aloud. Sentences illustrating the personal pronoun are written on 
the blackboard as well as ones illustrating the demonstrative adjec¬ 
tive. The pupils contrast the uses of the two forms and then build 
original sentences. They also select from these original sentences 
the demonstrative adjectives and the personal pronouns and dis¬ 
tinguish between them. Finally they are asked to bring to class 
from newspapers or magazines three sentences containing the correct 
use of those and three containing the correct use of these. These 
sentences are read in class with distinct emphasis on the adjective 
or pronoun in question. The children then copy carefully all the 
correct sentences that have been written on the board, underlining 
these, those, this, that, or them. 














VERB NOT AGREEING WITH SUBJECT. 


29 


3. Changed sentences .—Pupils are asked also to copy such sentences 
as the following, using these in place of this and those in place of 
that , making such other changes as may be necessary, Example: This 
knife is sharp. These knives are sharp. 

4. Formal drills (knowledge of grammar not involved). —The more 
formal drills suggested are these: 

(a) Drill— 

This book. That book. These books. Those books. 

This knife. That knife. These knives. Those knives. 

This pencil. That pencil. These pencils. Those pencils. 

(h) Give each day a few minutes to making sentences using those. 
One day let the children make a declarative sentence; another, in¬ 
terrogative sentences; and a third day, imperative sentences. 

( c) With a picture full of action as a basis, the children are asked 
to tell quickly as many things as possible that they see in the picture, 
beginning the sentences with such expressions as: 

This girl_ This hill_ These children_ 

That girl_ That hill_ Those children_ 

These boys_ This sled_ These bushes_ 

Those boys_ That sled_ Those bushes_ 

5. Formal drills (knowledge of grammar necessary ).—In dealing 
with the objective case of the third personal pronoun used for the 
subject, one teacher summarizes the correction thus: 

“ They ” is the correct form because— 

(1) The office of the word is the subject. 

(2) The subject requires the nominative case. 

(3) “Them” is the objective case of the pronoun “they.” 

“They” is the nominative, and because the third person plural 

nominative is needed “ they ” is the correct form. 


Chapter VI. 

FAILURE OF VERB TO AGREE WITH SUBJECT IN 
NUMBER AND PERSON. 

I. GAMES. 

1. What Were We Doing ?—John and Harry go into the hall and 
do something which they think the class can not easily guess. They 
may shake hands, bow to each other, or walk up and down the hall. 
They will easily think of something to do. John and Harry come in, 
stand before the class, and say, “What were we doing?” All the 
class who are ready to guess raise their hands. Either John or 
Harry, as the teacher may decide, designates which child may answer. 












30 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


The child thus designated guesses, perhaps, “ You were putting on 
your hats?” John and Harry answer, “We were putting on our 
hats,” or “ We were not putting on our hats.” The game continues 
until some one guesses correctly, when he may choose some one, and 
they go into the hall, and the game may be played again. 

2. / am Thinking of a Certain Book .—Another form is that of 
“ Guess What I am Thinking About.” The teacher commences the 
game by saying, “ I am thinking of a certain book.” The children 
then ask, “ Is it large ? ” “ Is it almost square ? ” and so on until some 
child guesses the name of the book, a geography, speller, or any other 
of their books. In the same way two or more objects may be used. 

3. What Word did you Choose? —A list of perhaps 20 words is 
placed on the board. The class chooses some child to guess. While 
the child chosen places his hands over his ey^es, another child points 
to any word in the list. At the signal “ Keady ” the child selected 
takes the pointer and pointing to a word asks, “ Is it opportunity? ” 
The class replies, “No; it is not opportunity ” or “Yes; it is oppor¬ 
tunity .” 

4. Where Is the Book? —Books are placed on diff rent objects in 
the room, as on the table, window, chair, one book on each object. 
While one child has his eyes closed, another picks up one of these 
books and then puts it back. The children then ask the guesser, 
“Where is the book?” He answers, “The book is on the table.” 
If that is the one that was picked up, they answer, “ That is the 
book.” If in two chances he guesses rightly, he may choose a child 
to guess the next time. In teaching are , more than one book is used. 

5. What Are They Doing? —Children also may perform the mo¬ 
tions of washing, scrubbing, playing ball, while the rest of the class 
guesses what is being done. Throughout all these games the drill, 
of course, is on is and are , so that no mistakes in their use should be 
allowed. After the use of is and are as singular and plural forms 
has been explained, the children make sentences. Each child makes 
one, using the singular form. This he gives to the child next in line 
who changes it to the plural form. If the second child gives the 
correct change, he passes on his singular form to his neighbor. Or 
the odd rows 1, 3, 5, 7 may have as their word is or was , while 
the even rows have are or were. A leader gives his sentence, telling 

from which row his word is chosen. “ The birds_coming 

soon,” he says, pointing as he does so to a child in the correct row. 
This child repeats the sentence, supplying are. If the leader 
chooses from the wrong row, he must surrender his place. 

6. Matched Sentences. —Sometimes a set of cards is prepared, half 
with the subjects of sentences in singular and plural forms, the other 
half with the remainder of the sentences. These are distributed 
promiscuously through the class, and after being properly matched 



VERB NOT AGREEING WITH SUBJECT. 


31 


by the pupils, are read aloud. Cards also are used which contain 
singular and plural verbs. Each child draws a card, gives his sen¬ 
tence, and calls on another child to give the rule. If the rule is cor¬ 
rectly stated, this child in his turn gives his sentence. 

7. Dreams .—Sentences are also formed by the dream route. The 
children put their heads down on their desks a minute, pretend to 
sleep, then tell what they dreamed. u I dreamed I was a flower.” 
“ I dreamed we were at the seashore paddling in the water.” 

8. The Zoo. —The children may be assigned to take the part of 
different animals. One child, for instance, may be a donkey. The 
teacher commands the donkey to bark. The donkey remains silent. 
The teacher comments in surprise. “ The donkey doesn’t bark.” The 
children answer, “ The donkey doesn’t bark. He doesn’t know how.” 
This game may be varied in many ways to delight the children. 

9. Like. —A simple little game of “ Like ” will furnish drill for the 
correct use of doesn’t. One child asks another, “ Does Harry like 
apples ? ” to which he replies, “ No; he doesn’t like apples.” Turning 
to another child he asks in turn, “ Does Harry like oranges? ” “ No; 
he doesn’t like oranges.” The questions continue until a fruit has 
been named twice, when the answer may be, “Yes; I think he likes 
oranges.” 

10. The Shoppers. —John comes to the front of the room and says, 
“ Mary and I are going to the dry-goods store to get some thread.” 
Mary joins him, saying, “ John, James, and I are going to the dry- 
goods store to get thread and buttons.” James, coming up, says, 
“ Jane, Mary, John, and I are going to the store to get thread, but¬ 
tons, and ribbon.” The game continues, each child choosing another 
and adding an article. All articles must be appropriate to the store. 

II. EXERCISES. 

1. The Front Seat. —Have the children in the outside row stand and 
face the class. Require the children at their seats to answer concern¬ 
ing each child standing whether he uses the front seat or not. Re¬ 
quire them also to give descriptive subjects rather than always use 
the child’s name. “ The smallest girl doesn’t use the front seat.” 
« The tallest boy doesn’t.” “ The last child doesn’t,” etc. 

III. DRILLS. 

1. Model sentences. —In dealing with the failure of the verb to 
agree with its subject in number and person, many of the reports 
emphasize developing the idea of agreement in number. This is done 
partly by placing on the board a series of sentences from which the 
pupils draw conclusions as to the use of is , are, do , does, etc. 


32 GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS ) ENGLISH. 

The paper was torn. 

The papers were torn. 

The bird icas in the nest. 

The birds were in the nest. 

How many papers are mentioned in the first sentence? What verb 
was used ? How many papers are mentioned in the second sentence ? 
What verb is used? At the end of a list of sentences some one will 
see the connection of the single thing with the use of was and will 
state, “ When speaking of one thing use was; when speaking of 
more than one thing use were” (This same method may be employed 
for the use of is and are.) 

Harold is at home. 

Harold and his brothers are at home. 

My book is interesting. 

My books are interesting. 

George, where are you going? 

Children, why are you laughing? 

2. Questions and answers. —The use of was and were is evolved in 
the same manner. Sometimes the sentences used are brought out in 
response to questions of the teacher, as “ What can you tell me about 
this picture ? ” “ That picture is pretty.” “ WTiat can you tell me 
about these pictures ? ” “ Those pictures are pretty.” At other times 
sentences taken from the compositions of the children furnish ample 
familiar material. Then the children are set to looking through 
their compositions to see if they have used is and are incorrectly. 
Those who did stand, read their sentence, and correct it. 

3. Cards. —Instead of having the sentences written on the board, 
the teacher may use a set of cards. Each card has on it two sentences, 
one using is and the other are. Each child is given a card and in 
turn asked to read it. No comments are made until perhaps a third 
of the cards occur again and again in the sentences. The questions 
and reasoning then continue as above, showing how many persons 
are mentioned in each case. 

Teach the following rules: 

Use is in speaking of one. 

Use are in speaking of more than one. 

Use was in speaking of one. 

Use were in speaking of more than one. 

Use has in speaking of one. 

Use have in speaking of more than one. 

5. Emphasis. —With pupils too young to understand that plural 
subjects need plural verbs, the teacher uses incidental correction, 
substituting the right form for the wrong. Oftentimes the pupils 
will recognize which form sounds better, so that mere emphasis by the 
teacher on the wrong word will suggest the right form. 


VERB NOT AGREEING WITH SUBJECT. 


33 


6. Number .—Another correction which normally presents itself 
runs something like this: The sentence, “ The rose is pretty” has 
been given. The teacher takes up the cudgel, saying, “ When one 
speaks of roses does he mean one rose or m^re than one? When we 
use the word is do we mean one or more than one? As roses 
means more than one, and is means only one, we must get some word 
that means more than one instead of is. What is that?” Thus 
the attention is centered definitely on how many persons or things 
are being considered. 

7. Agreement. —Something of novelty appears in this form of 
correction: “ Suppose the sentence ‘ We was here all night’ had been 
given in the classroom. ‘ Mary, where do you live ? ’ ‘86 Franklin 
Street.’ ‘ Jennie, where do you live? ’ ‘ 20 Hutton Street.’ ‘ Very, 
well; you have a number and a street, do you not?’ ‘Suppose I 
wish to send a package to Mary, and I put Mary’s name and 20 
Hutton Street on it, is it possible, taking for granted Jennie does 
not know Mary, that Mary will get the package?’ ‘No.’ ‘Why 
not?’ ‘ Because you put some other person’s number and street with 
her name.’ ‘ And that is just what you have done in this sentence. 
You have taken some other person’s number and street and put it 
next to Mary’s name. What corresponds to the number and street?’ 
‘ First singular or third singular.’ ‘ What number and street belongs 
to weV ‘First plural.’ ‘Instead of calling these numbers and 
streets, when talking of verbs, what do we call them?’ ‘Number 
and person.’ ‘ Instead of saying “Mary” what part of the sentence 
do we mean? ’ ‘ The subject.’ ‘ What relation does the verb always 
bear to its subject? ’ ‘The verb always agrees with its subject in 
person and number.’ ” 

8. “ S-verbs —A kindred method of correction deals primarily with 

the grammar element. The teacher begins the drive by asking, 
“ What is a verb ? What must every verb in a sentence have ? ” 
“ Every verb in a sentence must have a subject? ” “ What parts of 

speech may be used as subjects? What do we mean when we say 
that nouns are singular or plural in form ? What do we mean when 
we say a pronoun is in the first, second, or third person ? Are verbs 
singular or plural in form? Do verbs have person? Give several 
sentences using the s-form of the verb with singular nouns and pro¬ 
nouns as subjects, as She is here; he was here; John is late; the 
boy studies? What is the person of each of these subjects? Why? 
Are these subjects singular or plural in form? Why? With what 
letter do all these verbs end? What name might you give to verbs 
ending in ‘s’?” “We could call them the s-form of verbs.” 
“ What is the person of the subject that goes with the s-form of the 
verb ? ” “ The third person is used.” The teacher points out the 
fact that I was is an exception, and the only exception. She then 


34 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS 7 ENGLISH. 


gives several sentences in which the subject and the verb are plural, 
as “ The lessons were long,” “ The roses are red.” “ What is the 
number of these subjects? What is the form of the verb? When 
do we use singular verbs? When do we use plural verbs? Why is 
the sentence, “ We was here all night,” incorrect? ” 

9. Objects .—One noticeably large group of these drills suggests 
questions which the teacher is to ask. In the reply the pupils are 
required to use the forms under consideration. Sometimes objects 
are used, as when the teacher places several erasers, pencils, roses, or 
pictures, on the desk or about the room. One way of using these is 
by writing the word are on the board, and then having the children 
tell something about the objects and are. Care is taken to see that 
the are is spoken distinctly. It may be also that a child at a time 
picks up an article, saying, “ This card is pretty.” “ This book is 
large.” “ This doll is pretty.” With the articles scattered about 
the room the teacher may ask a series of questions as to their loca¬ 
tion, as “ Where is the eraser ? ” “ Where are the flowers ? ” 
“ Where is the dictionary? ” Single objects are sometimes used first, 
with others added later for drill on the plural. Again the teacher 
has a box. In this is placed first, let us say, a ball. “ What is in the 
box? ” Next a ring is added. “ What are in the box now? ” 

10. Actions. —Two or more children standing in front of the class 
furnish material for drill. “What is Mary doing? What are the 
children doing? What are all of you doing?” All rise quickly as 
they answer, “ We are standing.” A like repetition is used in seating 
them again. Furthermore, the teacher may use a set of questions on 
the homes of the pupils. “ Does Floyd have to go in this direction 
when he goes home? ” “ No; he doesn’t have to go east to get home.” 
The activities of some previous time are likewise used. “ Zelig, what 
were you doing yesterday ? ” “ Who else was playing marbles ? ” An 
exercise which is not only interesting but fruitful of drill comes 
when the teachers ask such questions as What is done to things by 
the wind ? “A tree is shaken—trees are shaken.” “A house is blown 
down; houses are blown down.” “ What was done to things on a very 
cold day ? ” “ Imagine that in the night some hungry rats crept into 
the pantry. What was done to the different things there?” 

11. Are. —Write the word are prominently on the board. Place 
before it a plural subject, as the boys , and after it a phrase, in the 
room. Have the class read it individually and in concert. See that 
the are is spoken distinctly. Erase the subject and the phrase and 
substitute new subjects and new endings. Have many of these sub¬ 
jects ready in your notes so that rapid drill can be given. 

12. Plural answers .—“ I shall tell you something about one person 
or thing. You may tell me the same* thing about more than one. 
This boy is playing.” “ The boys are playing.” 


VERB NOT AGREEING WITH SUBJECT. 


35 


13. Doesn’t .—Name five things your mother doesn’t do; your 
father; brother; a squirrel; a robin; a kitten. 

14. Nouns desiring positions .—First place on the board a long list 
of nouns in both singular and plural, more plurals preferably. Tell 
the children that these nouns are at present out of work and desire 
positions in sentences. If combined with the right verb they are 
satisfied and pleased, but if combined with the wrong one they will 
leave at once with great satisfaction. Then the children rapidly 
make sentences using is and are. Ask occasionally why is or are 
was used. Have the class tell rapidly which words in the list stand 
for one, which for more than one. 

15. Paradigms .—Drill on paradigms, as— 


Present tense. 

I come. We come. 

You come. You come. 

He comes. They come. 

Future tense. 

I shall come. We shall come. 
You will come. You will come. 
He will come. You will come. 


Past tense. 

I came. We came. 

You came. You came. 

He came. They came. 

Present perfect. 

I have come. We have come. 
You have come. You have come. 
He has come. They have come. 


From these the pupils form many sentences. 


b. There was 

were 
are 
is 

c. I am. I was. We are. 

You are. You were. They are. 

He is. He was. We were. 

She is. She was. They were. 

It is. It was. 

d. I do. I do not. I don’t. Do I not? 

He does. He does not. He doesn’t. Does he not? 

She does. She does not. She doesn’t. Does she not? 

We do. We do not. We don’t. Do we not? 

You do. You do not. You don’t. Do you not? 

They do. They do not. They don’t. Do they not? 

Don’t I? Don’t we? 

Doesn’t he? Don’t you? 

Doesn’t she? Don’t they? 

Pupils repeat these drills until they feel that an incorrect form 
sounds wrong. 

16. Don’t v. doesn’t .—The chief method of correcting don’t for 
doesn’t is supplying the contracted form, expanding it to the full ex¬ 
pression. The correct contraction of doesn’t is explained. If the 
pupil is forced to say he does not every time he says he don’t , he will 
soon overcome his habit. 

17. The “ was-were ” columns .—A device which adds interest and 
keeps the pupils alive to errors consists in planning on the board a 


, 


do. 

>number?<( does. 

don’t 


36 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 


column labeled “ was—were.” If a pupil uses the verb incorrectly, 
any pupil in the class recognizing the fact raises his hand, and at a 
nod from the teacher corrects the error. The name of the child 
making the mistake is put on the board in the “ was—were ” column 
and left there until the close of school on Friday, when all names are 
erased. Pupils have the privilege of correcting the teacher and of 
placing his name on the board if he makes a mistake. While this 
seldom happens, yet it removes any resentment a pupil may have in 
being corrected by a classmate. 


Chapter VII. 

CONFUSION OF PRESENT AND PAST TENSE. 

I. RHYMES. 

1. Jimmy Gray .—By repeating this nonsense rhyme, emphasizing 
ran each time, the children drill upon the past form: 

Once upon a rainy day 
Naughty little Jimmie Gray 
Lost his hat and ran away— 

• Ran away, ran away, 

Lost his hat and ran away. 

II. DRAMATIZATION. 

1. The Lion in the Forest .—A simple dramatization dubs one pupil 
a lion in the forest. Other children go for a walk in this forest. On 
seeing the lion they turn and run. Each child then tells what he 
did when he saw the lion. 

2. Other Playlets .—The children may reproduce such stories as 
that of the Ant and the Grasshopper, the Three Bears, or Chicken 
Little. (After the stories have been acted, have the children tell 
what they did.) In the story-telling itself there must be a thought¬ 
ful use of the word “ said.” 


III. GAMES. 

1. The Party. After the pupils have heard that— 

October gave a party, 

The leaves by hundreds came, 

the teacher suggests a make-believe party. First the children tell 
how they came. I came in a carriage, an automobile, on the street 
cars, on horseback, by train. Then if it is a birthday party, the 
pupils may pass by some pupil’s desk, leaving various articles. The 
recipient asks, “Who gave me this?” “I gave you the book” or 



PRESENT AND PAST TENSES CONFUSED. 37 

“Amy gave it to you.” Much interest and merriment may be devel¬ 
oped, and the giving of such presents may be safely encouraged. 

2. “ Spell-down” Games. — (a) Give the past tense. After several 
verbs have been studied the class chooses sides. The first pupil on 
side 1 begins with I come. The first pupil on side 2 responds I came, 
continuing I run , to which the second pupil on side 1 must reply 
I ran before he may give a present tense to the other side. If, how¬ 
ever, he fails to respond quickly, he passes to the other side. Swim 
and dive are soon learned to trap the opposing side. Encourage all 
to give short sentences, but insist that they be correct. 

(b) Principal parts. —The teacher has written on the board the 
present forms of the irregular verbs abide, awake, be, bear, beat, 
begin, etc. The first child on side A gives the principal parts of 
abide. If he can not give them, or gives them incorrectly, some other 
child on his side (he need not be the next in order) gives them if he 
can. If, however, some child on side B gives them before anyone on 
side A can, then the pupil who missed must go to the end of the 
other side. 

( c) Questions answered in the same tense. —A similar match is 

conducted by means of a series of questions previously prepared by 
the teacher. First one side, then the other answers to “Where does 
he sleep ? ” “ Where did he sleep ? ” “ What do you write every 

day ? ” “ What did you sing last Sunday ? ” 

( d ) Questions answered in the opposite tense. —Sometimes the pu¬ 
pils prepare a set of questions and select a leader. They ask the leader 
the questions one at a time. If the question is asked in the present 
tense, he is to answer in the past, and vice versa. He holds his place 
so long as he makes no mistakes. The pupil who asked his fateful 
question becomes the next leader. 

(e) Time .—In the “ Time Game ” the leader is the questioner. He 
calls on different ones, always using a certain verb in its yesterday, 
to-day, and to-morrow form. For instance, he asks, “ What did you 
give yesterday, John ? What do you give to-day ? What shall you 
give to-morrow? ” If the student called on answers correctly, he 
becomes the questioner and takes up another troublesome word like 
come, say, run. 

3. Games with cards. — (a) Verb families. —Cards are used very 
effectively in the games. One teacher recommends using a set of 
them to be played like “Authors.” Each book consists of four cards, 
all bearing the same number, three of which have one of the principal 
parts of an irregular verb on them, the fourth having all three 
parts. One book would consist of “ sing, sang, sung.” There are a 
hundred or more of these books. The cards from them are mixed 
and passed to the pupils who call for the parts of the verb needed 
to complete a book. 


38 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS 1 ENGLISH. 


(b) The teacher has a set of cards containing different forms of 

various verbs as, see , go , give , sees , gone , saw, <7oes, seew, 

given. The pupils in a row stand. The teacher flashes one of the 
cards at a time. The child whose turn it is must name the verb and 
give a sentence using it. If he fails, he steps out of line. The 
exercise is continued until all the pupils have had a turn. Then 
those who have failed have the opportunity to return to the line. 
To return, the child must name three words and give correct sentences 
for them. 

( c) Another teacher prepares a set of cards with verb forms com¬ 
monly misused. She then places these cards on the ledge at the side 
of the room, and tells the children that in this game Class I works 
against Class II, the object being to see who can not accumulate 
any cards in the front ledge before the class. If a child in Class II 
says I seen , some one, teacher or pupil, places the card “ I saw 99 
before Class II. If a child in Class I says I done , some one places 
the card “ I did ” before Class I. The game closes each week. It 
goes without saying that duplicate cards are necessary, as Classes I 
and II may make the same error, perhaps, many times. 

4. “ When ”—Six or seven pupils may play the game of “When.” 
One of them is elected as “ When,” another asks questions, and the 
rest answer. The question asked may be, “ WTien did you get 
your bicycle? ” “ Mother gave it to me yesterday.” If the answer 
is given incorrectly, “ When ” asks the question, whenf If some one 
else in the game asks it first, he takes “ When’s ” place. 

5. Climbing the Ladder .—In climbing the ladder the present and 
past forms of verbs are written on the board. Beginning with the 
lowest word, each child makes a sentence, climbing' with each word 
until he makes a mistake. 

6. Santa Claus .—One child is the questioner and asks of different 
members of the class, they in turn answering with a complete sen¬ 
tence, “ What did Santa Claus give you last Christmas?” The ques¬ 
tioner repeats the answer that is given him, supplying the speaker’s 
name instead of me. When he fails to quote exactly he must take 
his seat, while another takes his place. 

7. Mystery Man .—The children form a circle. They next place 
their hands behind them and close their eyes. The “ mystery man ” 
(the teacher or one of the children) then places some object, such as 
chalk, scissors, eraser, in the hands of each child. When this is done 
they all open their eyes, but do not look at the object. The teacher 
then asks each one in turn, “What did the mystery man give you?” 

“ The mystery man gave me-” comes the reply, as the children 

tell the object by touch. 

8. The Runaways. —To help drill on ran Mary stands in the front 
of the room with her eyes closed. The teacher then touches all but 



PRESENT AND PAST TENSES CONFUSED. 


39 


seven or eight children in the class. Those touched put their heads 
down on the desks. Those not touched run down the aisle and back 
to their seats. When the teacher says, u Ready ” Mary opens her 
eyes, and the children sit in order. Mary asks, u Did you put your 
head on your desk, Teresa?” Teresa answers accordingly. If she 
says she didn’t, Mary asks her why. And she answers, “ Because I 
ran away.” Mary continues until she locates all those who ran away. 

IV. EXERCISES. 

1. A Twice-Told Tale. —In order to bring out the distinction be¬ 
tween the present and past forms the teacher selects a short story or 
paragraph which uses the past tense of verbs. The pupils pick out 
the verbs and make a list of them, as (1) reached , (2) stood , (3) saw, 
(4) flew . The children use the verbs, telling something that was told 
in the story. These sentences then are repeated, using instead of the 
past tense the present. Again the verbs are listed, as (1) reaches, 
(2) stand , (3) sees, see , (4) flies, fly. Both lists of words and sen¬ 
tences are written on the board, so that the children can readily see 
how the second group of sentences changes meaning from the first 
group. 

V. DRILLS. 

1. Develop the simple present and past tense . 

(а) What does he do? (now time). 

(б) What did he do? (past time). 

(a) He gives it to me. (b) He gave it to me . 

They come often. They came in an auto. 

I say to him (now). I said to him. 

I run every day. I ran away. 

When pupils have become familiar with the principal parts of the 
verbs used most frequently, the words now, yesterday, last week, 
to-day are added after each sentence given. This simple test usually 
shows them which form to use. In this way the expression denoting 
time is used until the association is formed which connects the proper 
verb with the time expressed. 

2. Additions and changes. — (a) Say to said. A group of responses 
uses the question and answer method of approach. One suggestion 
runs as follows: “ Have a boy tell another boy that our school won 
the game; then ask, ‘ What did you say to Tom? ’ ‘ I said we won 
the ball game.’ ‘ When did you say we won it? ’ ‘I said we won it 
last week.’ ‘ Why did you say it to him ? ’ ‘I said it because you 
asked me to and because I wanted him to know it.’ ‘ What form of 
say have you used each time you answered ? ’ ‘I have used the past 
form, said l i What do you notice about the end of that word ? ’ ‘It 
ends in d to show past time.’ ” 

53613°—23-4 



40 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


3. Break , broke , broken. —For little people where no reference is 
made to verbs or tenses as such the teacher writes the three words, 
break , broke , broken , on the front board, and then asks for sentences 
containing the word break. She explains that the sentence must be 
something that happens right now. Then after giving an example 
and explaining that it should refer to some time past, she asks for 
sentences using broke. For broken she explains it must not be used 
without putting are, was, were, had, has , or a like word with it. Then 
she asks for sentences containing was broken , then had broken, are 
broken. She ends by a thorough drill, with all the words. She uses 
no game for this, because the children answer quickly without. They 
are anxious to talk. 

4. Questions and answers .—Questions with their answers are 
recorded on the board as: 

What did Mary give me yesterday? 

Mary gave you flowers yesterday. 

Is the time present or past? In all the sentences it is past. The 
verbs are then underlined. 

When does your father give you your lesson? 

He gives it to me every day. 

Is the time referred to present or past? The present time is re¬ 
ferred to in these sentences. What is the difference between the two 
groups of sentences? The sentences in the first group refer to past 
time, and the sentences of the second group refer to present time. 
The verbs have been changed to show the difference in time. The 
teacher then gives: 

Tenses are the forms of a verb that distinguish time. The present tense of 
a verb is the form that generally refers to present time. The past tense of 
a verb is the form that generally refers to past time. 

5. Regular verbs .—Have sentences on the board containing regu¬ 
lar verbs in the present time, as: 

(a) I walk to school. 

(&) I am walking to school. 

The teacher takes up the sentences one at a time, asking, “ What 
word tells what I do ? What word tells what I am doing ? ” “ Then 
when do you think I am doing either of these ? ” “ What does 

present time mean to you? ” “Now, right now.” The teacher then 
writes present time on the board under which to list verbs in the 
present time. The pupils list the ones given in the sentences. Next, 
the teacher takes up the idea of actions that are finished. “ We tell 
of those things as having happened in what time ? ” “ Of whom did 
we read this morning who is not living now, who did things in the 
past time? ” The children give sentences about Franklin and write 
the verbs on the board. The teacher underlines all the verbs ending 


PRESENT AND PAST TENSES CONFUSED. 


41 


in ed , and develops the fact that a great many action words end in 
ed when they mean past time. The past tense of some verbs must be 
remembered as being very different from the present tense, as give , 
gave , come, came. 

6. Verb list. —Divide the irregular verbs into groups according to 
certain similarities which occur in their forms. These are placed on 
the board, and each learned as a group. 

(a) Verbs in which the vowel in the last syllable of each changes, 
such as— 

begin began begun 

ring rang rung 

sing sang sung 

(b) Verbs having present and past perfect alike, such as: 

come came come 

become became become 

run ran run 

(c) Verbs having all three forms alike, such as: 

burst burst burst 

cast cast cast 

cost cost cost 

(d) Verbs which have the perfect formed by adding en to the 
past, such as: 

beat beat beaten 

bite bit bitten 

break broke broken 

In the sentence “ He give it to me,” the teacher may ask, “ Is the 
verb gwe regular or irregular?” “What are its principal parts?” 
“How is the past formed?” “The past is formed by the internal 
vowel change of i to a. v 

7. To-day , yesterday , last week. —After a vigorous study of the 
principal parts of the verbs, the principal parts may be used in sen¬ 
tences with the words, to-day , yesterday , or last rceek, as: “ He gives 
to-day. He gave yesterday. He had given last week.” 

8. Historic characters. —Sometimes the teacher places on the black¬ 
board before the lesson a list of men noted in history, science, or dis¬ 
covery, or names of battles or familiar places. These are used as a 
basis for sentences stating some past fact, as: “Washington became 
the first President of the United States in 1789.” 

9. Change the tense .—Sentences in the present tense are changed 
to the past. These may be prepared on cards, or paragraphs from the 
reader or textbooks may be used instead. The teacher may read the 
paragraph while the children, who are provided with paper, write 
the verbs they notice in the past tense. 

10. Formal drills.—Lists of principal parts. —The formal drills 
consist in having the principal parts of the verbs that give trouble 


42 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


placed on the board and repeated every day until the correct form 
becomes habitual, as see, saw, seen; write, wrote, written; do, did, 
done. Sometimes these forms are first given orally, next a subject is 
added, finally the children write the forms and sentences. 


Chapter VIII. 

CONFUSION OF PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

I. STORIES AND RHYMES. 

1. Katy-did .—In the evening before the birds and insects went to 
sleep, they had a story-telling hour. They told where they had 
traveled and what they had seen. Now when Katy-did told her 
stories she always said, “ I done it,” when she should have said, “ I 
did it.” One evening a fairy bird heard her say, “ I done it.” The 
fairy bird touched Katy-did’s throat with her magic wand and 
made it so small that now all she can say is only “ Katy-did, Katy¬ 
did, Katy-did.” 

Our young friend Miss Katy-did 
May be green, but none 
Ever, ever bear her say, 

She done, she done. 

2 .The Seen Family. —The real abundance of stories deals with 
the whole participle family. Here one finds an array of blind 
men and their dogs, brave men, bad men, old men, mother, father, 
brothers, friends, cowards, the old woman in the shoe, and the 
bachelor who lived by himself. For mere convenience this family 
is called “ Seen ” throughout, although “ Done,” “ Rung,” 
“ Written,” or “ Broken ” would be quite as appropriate a cogno¬ 
men, according as the case demanded. 

(a) The bad men and the good men. —A story is told of the bad 
man Seen, who is so bad that he can’t be trusted alone, but always 
has to have a guard with him. These policemen are called “ Have,” 
“ Has,” and “ Had.” Only one of them goes about with him at a 
time. On the other hand, “ Saw ” is a very good man and never 
needs a guard to make him behave. 

(5) Little Fraid Gat and her brother. —Strange to say, this bad 
man Seen next becomes a cowardly little girl, afraid even of her own 
shadow. She wouldn’t step out of the house alone, not even to play 
in the garden; so that her parents had to employ two nurses for her. 
One stayed with her all day, and the other sat by her bed at night. 
These nurses’ names were “ Have ” and “ Has.” One of them walked 
before Seen whenever she went out. (The children make several 
sentences using have seen , had $£e%-and has seen.) Now, Seen had 



PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE CONFUSED. 43 

a little brother Saw, but he was the bravest lad in the whole country. 
He even went out and pumped a drink for two Indians who came 
one day in a boat. They did not hurt him a bit. Instead they gave 
him some strings of beads, real Indian beads, because he was so 
brave. He did not want any nurses poking along with him. He 
would rather be alone, and had just lots of fun roaming about the 
woods, and fishing down at the brook. (The children make several 
sentences with saw to fasten its use in their minds.) They label 
the verb forms, as they give them, brave or cowardly. 

(<?) Mrs. Seen and Mrs. Saw. —The next metamorphosis of Seen 
is to a lovable mother. Mrs. Seen and Mrs. Saw were both members 
of the family of See, but were very different in their desires and 
habits. Mrs. Seen was a lovable woman who loved all good children, 
especially her own little ones, Have, Has, and Had. It was a 
common sight to see them in turn climb on her lap. What is more, 
she never under any circumstances went out without taking one of 
her children with her. But Mrs. Saw was not so lovable. In fact, 
she liked neither children nor home, and was often seen going to the 
club or theater alone. She never took Have, Has, or little Had 
along. The children quickly grew to fear her, and when she came 
near they would scamper away to find their best friend, Mrs. Seen, 
who always comforted and cheered them. 

(d) The family. —In another version Saw, instead of being the 
unsociable enemy of children, becomes the father, who, because he 
must go to work, can not take the children along. In yet another 
version the present form See is the mother, who is sometimes not 
very strong and at times needs a helping hand as Shall, Will, Do, or 
Did. The past form is the father who is strong and needs no help. 
The past participle is the feeble grandmother who always needs the 
assistance of Has, Have, Had, Am, or Was. 

(e) The Lame and the Halt; or, Mr. Seen’s crutches. —■“ Seen ” next 
becomes a little boy, a man, or an old man. In all cases he is lame, 
so lame that he always needs either a crutch or a cane. He can not 
walk without it. Now, just as children do not like to wear the same 
suit all the time, so Seen does not like to use the same cane all the time. 
Let’s see how many crutches or canes he may use. Have, Had, Is, Was, 
Had, etc. With some of his canes he is quite selfish. He will loan 
none of them to Saw, nor will he let See carry Has, Have, or Had. 

(/) The two brothers. —Seen and Saw are brothers, as different 
as brothers can be. Seen must always have help to do his work. 
His helpers are: Is, Are, Was, Were, Have, Has, Had, etc.. Saw 
needs no one to help him. He does his work alone. He does not care 
for his brother’s friends; he will not allow them to touch his work; 
he is angry if they come near him. If you have sharp ears, you can 
hear the fuss he makes when one of Seen’s friends comes near him. 


44 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


Those same sharp ears can also hear the fuss Seen makes if anyone 
tries to force him do his work without a helper. 

(g) Goosey-Goosey Gander. —“ Seen ” next appears on the board 
as a goose. Trailing behind her are many little goslings, Have, Has, 
Was, who were always with her. Saw also is drawn on the board, 
a gander who has no children. As different words are considered, 
such as came and come, did and done, the names of the goose and 
the gander change, but the goslings remain the same. For variety 
a picture of the Old Woman in the Shoe is used in place of the 
goose, with children instead of goslings, and a picture of When I 
was a Bachelor for the gander. 

(h) The Blind, or Mr. Seen’s dogs. —Finally, Seen having been 
lame and halt, now goes blind. He can travel the right road only 
when led by his faithful dogs, whose names are Have, Had, and Has. 
The past form, Saw, needs no help and is led into trouble by the 
blind man’s dogs. When a pupil says, “ I seen him,” the teacher com¬ 
ments “ Alas, my faithful dog is gone.” 

3. Going, going, gone. — (a) Johnny. For older pupils the anecdote 
may have its place. Johnny habitually used have went for have 
gone. The teacher thinking to break the habit told him to write 
have gone on the board 100 times. Before Johnny had finished the 
task the teacher was called from the room. Later when he returned 
he found on the board, 

Dear Teacher : I have wrote my paper 150 times and have went home. 

Johnny. 

In a like manner may serve the quotation, “ I never made a mis¬ 
take in grammar in my life, because just as soon as I done it I 
seen it.” 

(b) Go, Little Booklet. —Similar to this is the little poem, said 
to have been written in one of Bill Nye’s books. One teacher in sub¬ 
mitting it says: 

Despite the fact that it is not good pedagogy to put the wrong expression 
before the child, the writer has secured good results by reciting for the pupil 
this stanza from the well-known humorist: 

Go, little booklet, go! 

^ And bear an honored name, 

Till everywhere that you have went 
They’re glad that you have came. 

“ Go, little booklet, go,” is all the cue that is necessary to suggest correction. 

4. Sights and sounds. — (a) Perhaps here also belongs the jingle¬ 
furnishing drill on I saw: 

I saw Esau kissing Kate. 

The fact is we all three saw, 

For I saw Esau, he saw me, 

And she saw I saw Esau. 


PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE CONFUSED. 45 

(b) Somewhat more pedagogical is the use of Stevenson’s Foreign 
Lands and Longfellow’s Bell of Atri. These are read aloud, with 
emphasis on all the forms of see and ring. The teacher then allows 
the children to imagine themselves in the cherry tree, and tells them 
to jump down and be ready to answer rapidly in turn. “What 
did you see while you were up in the tree? ” Or she asks, “Who 
rang the bell of Atri ? ” “ Why had the bell rung ? ” “ How was 
it rung? ” 

5. An artist. —One final set of verses remains for consideration. 
These are used to illustrate the correct forms of draw. 

Yesterday I drew a tree, 

It was easy as could be; 

First I made the trunk just so, 

With the branches, high and low. 

Said my teacher, “ Boys, do you 
Know this tree that William drew?** 

’Twas an oak, they all could tell; 

I had drawn my tree so well. 

II. DRAMATIZATION. 

Several kinds of imitation are used in correcting this error and 
teaching the correct habit. 

1. The Verb Dolls. —One pupil represents seen , one have, one has, 
one saw. Another pupil is selected to come forward to touch seen or 
saw and if necessary a helper. Like animated dolls, they speak their 
names. The children at their seats think of sentences, using the words 
selected. Has and seen may be the words pointed to by the child. 
The sentence given by the children may be “ He has seen a flock of 
geese.” 

2. The Rat Princess. —More bona fide dramatization is suggested, 
however, in the acting of the “ Bat Princess ” from Bryant’s “ How 
to Tell Stories to Children.” Here, as the father rat comes to the 
various celebrities to offer the hand of his daughter, he prefaces his 
remarks each time by telling why he has come, thus affording drill on 
have come. 

3. The Go Family—Vo fix the correct forms of go, two children 
are selected to play the parts of parents of a large family. The first 
scene shows the family at home performing assignments. Father 
and all but two of the children leave for work, school, store, and 
market. A neighbor calls for mother to go shopping. The two chil¬ 
dren are left to answer the questions put by tradespeople, truant 
officer, friends, and neighbors as to where the different members of 
the family have gone. 

4. The Sentinels. —Since seen and done are the two most misused 
of these forms, another teacher selects two wide-awake children, 


46 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


naming one Seen and the other Done. Whenever these words are 
used incorrectly these children simply stand, not saying a word. The 
culprit then corrects his own mistake. 


III. GAMES. 


In turning now to the use of games one finds a number of sug¬ 
gestions of wider significance than mere application to past tense 
and past participle, which have been previously discussed under 
general methods. Thus, here are found the telephone game, numer¬ 
ous forms of the old spelling match, those in which sides are chosen 
by using a troublesome verb in a sentence, those in which sides 
banter back and forth questions and answers, incorrect and correct 
form sentences first with past tense, next with past participle and 
principal parts of verbs. 


1. Choose. — (a) A game on the order of a spelling match, but 
applicable chiefly to verb forms, has not yet been mentioned. In it 
the teacher gives out the following groups of words one by one: 


A bubble. 

A potato. 

A bean bag. 
A born. 


A tulip. A riddle. 

A whistle. A wagon. 

A ball. A flag. 

A seedling. An answer. 


The pupil whose turn it is should reply instantly, choosing the 
most fitting answer from the following sentences. It is a miss to 
hesitate or to use a sentence which is not applicable. 

I grew it I threw it I flew it. 

I drew it. I blew it I knew it 


(b) A similar game may be made, using the following sentences: 


I saw it 
I chose it. 
I broke it. 
I wore it. 


I gave it 
I took it. 

I bit it. 

I swung it. 


I did it. 

1 wrote it. 
I tore it 
I ate it 


I sang it 
I hid it. 

I shook it 
I rang it. 


2. u Oh , the Sights We’ve Seen .”—Practically all the other games 
are built upon the action in the word on which the drill is to be 
concentrated. Although these may at times be adaptable to other 
words, the discussion naturally falls under the verb most adaptable 
to it. 


(a) The teacher’s desk is covered with various articles. The chil¬ 
dren march slowly past the desk back to their seats. Different 
children stand and tell what they saw, as “ I saw a box,” “ I saw a 
book,” “ I saw five pencils.” The child who names the longest list 
wins the game. Care should be taken that, despite the drill on saw , 
the game elements predominate enough to make the exercise quite 
interesting and keep it from being a mental bugbear. Sometimes 
on the march the pupils are told to.notice one thing in the book- 


PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE CONFUSED. 47 

case. Each later reports his find. Perhaps greater interest is main¬ 
tained if imagination is allowed to enter in. The teacher tells the 
pupils to play they are going to a toyshop, which has around the 
room rows of shelves on which are displayed the pretended toys. 
When the pupils return to their seats, after a march, they tell what 
they saw. Boys may take one side; girls the other. Every child 
is called upon to tell five things he saw. “ I went to the toyshop. I 
saw dolls, I saw drums, I saw balloons, I saw kites, I saw whistles.” 
Later these items are enlarged into more detailed sentences, as “ I 
saw a doll with a pink dress.” All those who do this quickly and 
correctly stand in a row. The side having the largest number when 
the game ends wins. 

(b) Another quite popular game is that, previously described, of 
going to the circus. After the imagination has filled in all the 
necessary details of the trip, tents, side shows, etc., the pupils tell 
what they saw at the circus. The same plan holds true for the 
pupils who go to the farm or the woods instead of the circus. Some¬ 
times, to increase the sense of the difficulty overcome, the enumera¬ 
tion becomes cumulative. The first child says, “ I saw a bear.” 
The second child says, “I saw a bear, I saw a lion, and I saw a 
tiger.” 

(c) Another cumulative game is played by having one child point 
to an object, saying its name, as “ Clock.” A second child says, “ I 
saw a clock,” and points to it, then to another object. The third 
child continues, “ I saw a clock, I saw a chair,” as he points to a 
third object. 

(d) The teacher, dividing the room into two equal divisions, says, 
“We are going to take a journey. Each one may go where he 
likes, and when he returns he may tell me what he saw.” Children 
close their eyes and think a minute. “ Now our journey is over, 
and we are at home again.” The children open their eyes and are 
ready to tell what they saw. The teacher chooses first one from one 
division, then one from the other division to tell what he saw. 
Each child called upon tells where he went and five things he saw, 
as “ I went to the beach. I saw boats, I saw fisherman, I saw the 
wharf, I saw the waves, I saw crabs.” The teacher may ask them 
what they saw at the circus. Such a game, it is evident, is closely 
related to the games of travel previously discussed. „ 

( g ) The children pretend they are in some country which they 
have studied about in geography, such as Switzerland, where Jean¬ 
nette* the little Swiss girl, lives. Each one tells what he saw. 

(/) A list of words on the board is concealed from view. Then 
the pupils are allowed to look at the words a moment, after which 
they are again covered. The children then see who can name the 
most words seen. 


48 


GAMES EOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


3. Newcomers. — (a) The game starts with the story of a prince 

from a far-off country who is coming to visit the class. Each 
pupil may ask him a question. One child then is chosen as the 
prince; the others ask about his coming, “Who came with you?’* 
“ When did you come ? ” “ Did you come far ? ” “ How did you 

come? 55 

(b) Several children go to the store in one corner of the room. 
The busy storekeeper tries to find out who came first. “ When did 
you come? ” After having decided the order in which they came 
he asks what they came for. He then wraps the articles and asks, 
“ Who came for tea ? ” “ Who has come for sugar ? ” 

( c ) One child acting as Mother Goose leaves the room. Other 
children choose which Mother Goose character each will represent, 
e. g., Humpty-Dumpty, or Mistress Mary. Mother Goose on return¬ 
ing is greeted by a chorus of “ For whom have you come?*’ “ I have 
come for Mistress Mary.” Mistress Mary goes to the front of the 
room. Again the chorus, “ For whom have you come? ” and again 
the selection until all are taken. 

4. Bell ringers. — (a) Naturally, the games on the verb ring 
center about the ringing of a bell. Sometimes this is hidden in a 
pupil’s desk while all the pupils keep their hands in their desks. 
It is softly tinkled to help the guesser locate it as he asks “ Did you 
ring the bell, Joseph? ” Sometimes several children ring the bell 
during the guesser’s absence. He endeavors to guess the four or five 
who did the ringing. 

5. Runaways .— (a) The teacher chooses three or four children to 
run a race. These children decide what the different parts of the 
room will represent. At a signal given by the class, “ Ready, one, 
two, three—run! ” the children run to the places they have decided 
upon. The class then asks, “ Where did you run, Alice ? ” “I ran 
to a fire.” “ Where did you run, Tom ? ” “I ran to the store.” 

IV. EXERCISES. 

Conversations and exercises, accompanied as far as possible by per¬ 
forming the acts mentioned, furnish the greatest drill on the different 
forms of the verb and their correct use. 

1. What did you do ?—On the board is placed a list of verbs, as 
see , write , ring , break , come, do. Using these words, various chil¬ 
dren make sentences asking other children to do these things: “ John, 
write your name.” “ Mary, run to the window.” “ James, ring the 
bell.” When they have performed their tasks they stand in a row in 
front of the room and tell what they did. “ I broke a stick; ” “ I 
wrote my name.” The teacher then asks them to tell what it is they 
have done. She may next ask some pupil at his seat what John did. 


PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE CONFUSED. 49 

u He wrote his name.” “ How do you know he did? ” “ I saw him 
write it.” With older pupils two actions may be involved; as, 
u Henry had written his lesson before he went home.” “ John had 
gone home before his sister came.” 

2.See .—For convenience the actions suggested for the different 
verbs are simply listed: 

(a) Teacher and class go on a field trip. On returning to school 
the teacher questions the class as to what they saw. 

(b) Several children run to the window and then tell what they 
saw, asking also, “ Have you ever seen it?” 

(c) One child walks along the back of the room, noticing as he 
does so such objects as blackboard, chalk, erasers. With his back 
turned so he can not see the back of the room, he tells all he saw. 

(d) A group of objects is arranged on the desk. A child is chosen 
to run to the desk and take one article. “ Who saw what Mary 
took? ” “ I saw her take a pencil.” 

( e ) With objects on the desk, pupils pass by and tell what they 
saw —not seen , not sorra. 

(/) Arouse the curiosity of the pupils by placing articles on a 
table behind a screen in one corner of the room. Two children are 
allowed to go to the table. One of them raises an object so that it 
can be seen by the remainder of the class. He lowers it quickly be¬ 
hind the screen, while the class responds. “ I saw-.” The 

expression I saw is thus repeated many times. 

3. Do. One child raises the shade. “ Who raised the shade ? ” 
“ You did it.” “ Who closed the door? ” “He did it.” 

4. Come. —( a ) Teacher beckons to some boy, saying, also, “ Come 
to me.” “ What did you do ? ” “ What have you done ? ” 

(b) Teacher sends one pupil out of room to return immediately. 
“ Who has come back ? ” 

5. Ring .—John comes to the front of the room and rings a bell. 
While he is doing it, he says, “ I ring the bell,” or “ I am ringing the 
bell.” When he stops he must say, u I rang the bell.” “ I have rung 
the bell.” or the teacher asks, “ What are you doing? ” “ What did 
you do ? ” “ What have you done ? ” 

g Q 0m —(#) Send one child to the hall, one to the board, one to 
another’s seat. “ Where did John go? ” “ Where has James gone? ” 

(b) Have two or more children go to the same place. “Where 
did Susie and Mary go ? ” “ Where have George and Carl gone ? ” 

(c) Teacher whispers to different pupils to go to places in the 
room. At a signal the children go to these places while the ones at 
their seats question, “ Where have you gone? ” 



50 


GAMES FOE IMPROVING PUPILS ENGLISH, 


V. DRILL. 


1. The helpers and the helped.- 
and seen are placed on the board. 

1. John saw a robin. 

2. Helen saw a blue jay. 

3. You saw a bird’s nest. 

4. He saw a crow. 

5. The boy saw a lark. 


-Several sentences containing saw 

1. Mary has seen the book. 

2. We have seen you. 

3. Alice had seen the nest 

4. They have seen robins. 

5. We have seen pussy-willows. 


The children read the first group of sentences and locate the word 
that is repeated; saw is underlined. Next they read the second group, 
locating the word repeated there; seen is underlined. The pupils 
then look for some word that is used with seen and determine whether 
any such word was used with saw. They are then led to form the 
conclusion that seen is not used alone while sa/w is. This method 
involves then: (1) Presentation of varied sentences containing past 
form and past participle; (2) comparisons made of the difference in 
use; (3) generalization developed, participle used with a helping 
word, past tense alone; (4) a listing of helpers used in the sentences 
with other sentences and other helpers; (5) application in the form 
of sentences containing past tense and past participle given by the 
children. 

The idea of the helping word, brought out strongly by the stories, 
is employed again and again with the explanation, “ Some words are 
never used alone but need a helper.” The pupils are set to hunting 
for helpers in sentences. They make lists of verbs which can and 
those which can not be used with has , have , or had. Then comes 
drill, using these verbs in sentences. It is well at times to have these 
sentences changed from the past participle to the past tense. 

2. Verb forms.— u There is but one remedy for this most common 
error (confusion of past tense and past participle). Teach 
thoroughly the principal parts of the common irregular verbs. In¬ 
sist that they be drilled upon and thoroughly mastered. The class 
should be taught to find the principal parts of unfamiliar irregular 
verbs in the dictionary, since they will keep a dictionary after an 
English textbook has been sold. 

3. Things seen— After pupils know and understand the why, the 
next step is drill and more drill. The object, of course, is to 
evoke as much repetition as possible of the correct form. One set of 
suggestions emphasizes the use of what the children saw or heard as 
they came to school or went home. Perhaps the teacher may begin 
by saying, “As I came to school this morning I saw a big automobile. 
What did you see? ” 

4. Contractors .—Lists of words—noun, verbs, or sometimes 
phrases—may be placed on the board, and from these the children 
form sentences. To make the drill more interesting, tell them they 


USE OF INCORRECT VERB. 


51 


are contractors who must build sentence houses for their thoughts. 
If the sentence is not grammatically correct, the houses will fall 
down. One child may lay the foundation, “ The fire alarm,” and the 
next may complete the house by saying, “ Has rung just now.” The 
sentences thus formed are made over into old or new houses by chang¬ 
ing the tense from past to present, or vice versa. 

At times a sentence contest is held. The teacher first gives the six 

or seven verbs, then calls on a pupil quickly, saying, “ Verb, ran- 

Give a sentence using present tense,” or “Verb, write- Use 

the past participle in a sentence.” 

5. Formal drills .—Many of the formal drills repeat over and over 
the principal parts of the verbs. The principal parts are written 
on the board and used in several ways. The pupils read the list in 
concert and individually. They prefix a pronoun. They take words 
by columns. Having only the present forms before them, they drill 
on the past, or the participles, and so on. 

6. The up-to-date car .—Throughout all the drill work the teacher 
emphasizes the fact that there is no “ speed limit ” in reciting. If the 
pupils are especially interested in automobiles, she gives them the 
quotation “A habit is an action with a self-starter.” She fills in 
the comparison, emphasizing the loss of time if one is required to 
crank his machine, or if he has to stop to correct his language. She 
asks them to see how many can drive 50 minutes without getting out 
to crank. It is surprising to observe the disgrace attached to one who 
does not drive an up-to-date car. 


Chapter IX. 

USE OF THE INCORRECT VERB. 

I. STORIES AND RHYMES. 

One of the best and pleasantest ways for the children to learn cor¬ 
rect forms in English is through the story-telling period. 

1. The Three Bears .—In the Three Bears occur the statements 
“ Some one has been eating my soup.” “ Some one has been sitting 
in my chair.” “ Some one has been lying in my bed.” This affords 
nine times a repetition of correct forms of much-abused verbs, as 
well as emphasizing the pronunciation of -ing. “ Some one has 
broken my chair,” and “ Some one has eaten all my soup,” occur also. 
In reproducing this story, care is taken that these sentences are given 
verbatim, as well as that and , so , and other connectives, may 
diminish. 

2. The Little Pig— In the story of the little pig, repetition of 
may and can appears. The little pig grew tired of living in his pen; 






52 GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 

so he decided to go to the woods and build himself a house. On 
his way, he met a rabbit. “ Good morning, pig,” said the rabbit. 
“ Good morning rabbit,” said the pig. “ Where are you going this 
spring morning?” asked the rabbit. “ I am tired of living in a pen, 
so I am going to the woods to build myself a house,” said the pig. 
“ May I go with you ? ” asked the rabbit. “ What can you do ? ” 
“ See my sharp teeth ? I can cut down the trees to build your house.” 
“ You are just the one I want then; come along with me,” said the 
pig. The pig then met a duck and a rooster, and the same conversa¬ 
tion ensued, except that the duck said, “ See my broad bill. I can 
carry mud with it. You will need mud to plaster your house,” and 
the rooster added, “ I’ll be your clock to wake you up in the 
morning.” 

3. Boy Scouts. —A story of the Boy Scouts may arouse interest and 
stimulate repetition. William and John are of the same age and are 
in the same class. William has belonged to the Boy Scouts for a 
year and has told John about it. John wishes to join the Boy Scouts, 
but before he can do so he must be able to do certain things. 

'William. Can you swim? 

John. No; I have never learned how. 

William. Can you walk a long distance without getting tired? 

John. Yes; I can walk a long distance. 

William. Can you make a fire for mother in the morning? 

John. Yes; I can make a fire. 

Thus the questions continue. John is determined to join the Boy 
Scouts, but he must have his parents’ permission. He goes home to 
obtain it. 

John. Mother, may I join the Boy Scouts? 

% Mother. Yes; you may. 

John. Father, may I join the Boy Scouts? 

Father. You may, if your mother agrees. 

John then asks permission to learn how to do certain things. Dif¬ 
ferent children in the room, after being familiarized with the story, 
take the place of William and of John and of the mother and the 
father. 

4. “ Can I Run?” The teacher, after emphasizing the difference 
in meaning between can and may, may quote this rhyme: 

Can I run? Can I play? 

Both are silly things to say. 

Surely one can run and play 

If he is well and has his way. 

All folks’ rights we must observe, 

Some folks’ rules obey. 

If permission one does seek, 

“ May I, please?” is what to say. 


USE OF INCORRECT VERB. 


53 


5. “ Mr. Aint , Miss Am Not , and Miss Are Not? From a maga¬ 
zine is cut a large picture of a slovenly man. This is pasted on a 
cardboard and labeled, u Mr. Aint.” A picture of a pretty girl called 
“ Miss Am Not ” and another for “ Miss Are Not ” are also provided. 
It seems that Miss Am Not and Miss Are Not can not live in the same 
room with Mr. Aint. The pupils are asked to select which shall 
live in their schoolroom. Mr. Aint is accordingly relegated to the 
closet, where he must live until some one brings him in. When a 
child uses aint he must take Miss Am Not and Miss Are Not down 
and bring in Mr. Aint, who stays until the correct expression has been 
used a required number of times. 

6. Some rhymes. —In the courses of study of the schools of Decatur, 
Ill., the following rhyme is offered: 

A fat little boy who said ain’t 
Fell into a big can of paint. 

And when he got out 
He said with a shout, 

“ I’ll say isn’t, and aren’t, not ain’t” 

When children have learned the uses of will and shall and have 
perhaps heard the rhyme: 

When I or we desire to ask 
Of things that are or may be, 

We summon shall and bid it lead 
Our question on its journey. 

They may appreciate the story of the Frenchman who, because he 
cried when drowning “ I will drown, nobody shall save me,” was 
allowed to drown. 

II. DRAMATIZATIONS. 

7. The winds. —Drill on shall and will is afforded through drama¬ 
tization. 

Five children may represent the cold north wind, five the east 
wind, five the warm summer south wind, and five the west wind, while 
other children represent flowers of different seasons of the year, as 
violet, daisy and goldenrod. 

East Wind. Shall I come now, Violet? 

Violet. Yes; and bring your warm spring rains. 

The east wind blows and the five children softly pass the violet. 

South Wind. Shall I come now, Daisy? 

Daisy. Yes; you may come now and bring warm weather. 

The south wind passes the daisy very, very quietly. 

West Wind. Shall I come now, Goldenrod? 

Goldenrod. Yes; you may come and bring Jack Frost. 


54 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


The west wind with huffing and puffing passes by. 

North Wind. Shall I come now, Flowers? 

AUFlowers. Yes; you may come and scatter our seeds about. 
The north wind passes noisily by, and the children scatter to their 
seats. 

2 .The Four Musicians of Bremen .—The Four Musicians of Bre¬ 
men are interesting actors. Four children may take the parts of the 
cat, the dog, the donkey, and the rooster, respectively. The other 
children may be the audience, and when one of the actors makes a 
mistake the child first detecting it may take his place. 

Bog. What shall you do? 

Cat. I shall lie on the rug by the fire. What shall you do? 

Bog. I shall lie by the tree. What did you do ? 

Cat. I lay on the rug. What did you do? 

Bog. I lay by the fire. 

(The rooster and the donkey carry on a similar conversation. The 
whole story may be worked out in this way.) 

3. Mother Goose's visitor. 

John. Good morning, Mother Goose, I have come to see you and 
your children. 

Mother Goose. Come right in, I’m glad to see you, but my children 
are not all at home. 

John. I am very sorry, for I love them all. I hope Boy Blue is 
here. 

Mother Goose. No, he is not. He is still lying under the haystack 
fast asleep. 

John. Does he lie there all the time? 

Mother Goose. He has lain there many years. 

John. Are Jack and Jill away, too? 

Mother Goose. No; they are lying in bed. 

John. Lying in bed! Oh, yes; I remember. They tumbled down 
after they had run up the hill, didn’t they ? 

Mother Goose. Yes and cracked their crowns, poor things. 

John. I am sure I shall find Jack Horner here. 

Mother Goose. Yes; he still sits in the corner. 

John. And Bo-Peep, where is she? 

Mother Goose. Always hunting her sheep. 

John. Look, Mother Goose, I see a mouse! 

Mother Goose. Yes; he belongs to the family. 

John. The one that ran up the clock? 

Mother Goose. The very same. 

John. Mother Goose, I must go home. I have enjoyed my visit* 
good-by. 

Mother Goose. Good-by. Come again. 

John. Yes; thank you. 


USE OF INCORRECT VERB. 


55 


III. GAMES. 

1. Supply the Missing Link. —After the difference between lie 
and lay , sit and sat , let and leave , and shall and will have been 
taught, a game drilling upon all these adds interest and helps to 
gain results. Four groups of short sentences are placed on the board 
with the same number of sentences in each group. The blanks in 
sentences in group 1 require either lie or lay; group 2, sit or sat; 
group 3, let or leave; group 4, shall or will. The class looks at the 
sentences; then, one pupil from each row goes quickly to the board 
and fills the blanks for his row. The mistakes are then discussed, 
and the reasons reviewed. 

2. May I Have Your Pencil? —A game which provides repetition 
of the use of may and I have no sends a group of four or five chil¬ 
dren to the front of the room where each selects some article. A 
leader stands before them. The children show the articles very 
quickly, then place them behind their backs. The leader asks, “ May 
I take your bell, Alice?” “I have no bell, Mary.” “May I have 
your pencil, James?” “Yes; you may take my pencil.” This is 
continued until the leader has collected all the articles. 

3. Can and May. — (a) One child stands before the class. He 
holds up before them a piece of crayon and a music reader. He 
asks different children questions, as “ Can you draw ? ” “ Can you 
sing a song?” The first child answers, “Yes; if I may have the 
crayon.” The second, “ Yes; if I may have the music reader.” 

( b) Eose goes to Freda, who asks, “Where are you going, Eose?” 
Eose replies, “I am going to Boston.” “May I go?” “Yes; you 
may go.” Freda then goes to another child, who asks the same ques¬ 
tion. Freda replies by saying, “I am going to New York.” The 
question, “ May I go? ” is repeated, and the game continued. 

(<?) A leader is chosen. The class questions the leader, who must 
answer with a sentence using can or may. When the leader gives an 
incorrect answer, he goes to his seat and another is chosen in his 
place. 

(d) First pupil goes to the hall; the second acts as doorkeeper. 
To the first pupil’s knock the doorkeeper replies, “What do you 
wish?” The answer is, “I wish to come in. May I?” The door¬ 
keeper repeats the request to the class. If the question is correctly 
given, the class responds, “Yes; you may come in”; if not, “No; 
you may not.” 

IV. EXERCISES. 

As with the games, so with the exercises; almost all of them deal 
with specific illustrations rather than general suggestions. These 
latter are limited to quite broad methods, such as illustrating the 
53613°—23-5 


56 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS ENGLISH. 


correct form, using sentences with blanks, conversational develop¬ 
ment, corrections, incidental or by sound, all of which have been 
previously considered. The one idea chiefly applicable to this group 
is that the meaning of these words be made absolutely clear and then 
drilled upon until it is familiar. Throughout practically this whole 
group meaning is the keynote. 

1. The Bouncing Ball. —One boy chooses a second boy; the second 
chooses a third; the third a fourth. The first boy bounces a ball; 
turning to the second boy he says, “John, can you bounce a ball? ” 
John answers, “Yes, Tom, I can bounce a ball.” Tom, “Then you 
may bounce the ball.” John then turns to the third boy and asks 
the same question. Questions and answers must be the same each 
time. 

2. Come , Write on the Board. —Lena stands in the front of the 
room. She says, “ Come, write on the board, Lucille.” Lucille 
stands and says, “Shall I come now?” Lena answers, “Yes; you 
may come now.” Lucille performs the act, and then calls upon 
another child to read or recite a poem, receiving and giving the same 
answer and reply. 

3. Getting What You Have. —Ruby is sent to the closet to get a 
book. “ What did you do ? ” asks the teacher. “ I got a book.” 
“ Who has it now? ” “I have it.” “Then what is the difference be¬ 
tween got and have?” In this manner is developed the fact that 
got is used to describe the act of obtaining and have the possession 
of a thing. The teacher gives two marbles to Ruth, saying “ You 
may place one in Robert’s hand and one in his pocket. Robert tell 
me where you have the marbles.” Next she has a row of pupils 
come to the desk and choose an object from it. The children then 
stand in front of the class and say, “ I have a pencil.” “ I have an 
eraser.” “ I have a book.” Pupils in their seats question each other, 
asking, “What does Margie have?” Then the children put the 
objects back on the table, and again each tells what he had. 

4. Lay it Down and Let it Lie. —Much the same method illustrates 
lie , lay / sit , set. “Josephine lay your book on the table. Where is 
it lying? Who laid it there? Why did you lay it there? What 
position has the book? What has Josephine done?” The teacher 
returns the book to Josephine, asking for a repetition of the act. 
“What is Josephine doing now?” Two or three chairs are placed 
together, and Harry is sent to lie down on them. A similar set of 
questions is asked concerning the meaning of lie and lay. From these 
answers the meaning of lie and lay is determined. 

5. Sit and Sat. —In developing the distinction between sit and 
sat , a vase, book, or chair is used. The teacher again questions, 
“ What did Raymond do? What did you mean by set? Where is the 
chair now? Why use the word sit?- How long has the chair been 


INCORRECT USE OF MOOD. 


57 


there? ” Raymond then sits down in the chair, and the questions 
concerning his action continue. The children in one row exchange 
seats with those in another and tell where they are sitting. Mary 
takes nine pins and sets them in a row. From the constant query 
in case after case, the differences between the words and their uses 
become apparent. 

6. bhall and WiU .—For drill on shall and will , small mounted 
pictures, or objects, or cards, are used. These represent either in 
picture or in writing an apple, cherry, lemon, orange, basket, penny, 
and so on. If cards or pictures are used, shuffle and let pupils 
draw. If objects, put them into a large box and have the pupils 
close their eyes while drawing. As each pupil draws the teacher 
asks, “John, what did you draw?” John, “I drew an orange.” 
Teacher, “What shall you do with your orange?” John, “1 shall 
make some orangeade and give you all a drink of it.” 


Chapter X. 

INCORRECT USE OF MOOD. 


Opinions regarding the teaching of the use of the subjunctive mood 
vary. To-day few uses of the subjunctive exist as anything more 
than a historical remnant of past elegance. Except as introductory 
to verb work in foreign languages little is done with the subjunctive. 
Probably many who study the subjunctive will find in later days 
that “ If I was sure ” and “ I wish there was swimming ” will have 
become syntactically possible through enlargement of the function of 
the verb was. 

I. GAMES. 

The games are all very similar, practically all of them being a 
form of the wish game with only slight variations. The basis for 
most of these is this: 

1. If Wishes were Horses , Beggars would Ride .—A set of cards 
is supplied with these words: 


king 

goldfish 

poet 

horse 

bird 

silkworm 

Arab 

tiger 

dog 

prince or 

sheep 

cricket 

robin 

princess 

star 

kitten 

explorer 

elephant 

Santa Claus 

farmer 

raindrop 

fairy 

clock 

mouse 

butterfly 

millionaire 

artist 

bee 

apple tree 

aviator 

sunbeam 

star 

musician 

alligator 

author 

snow flake 




58 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


The teacher passes a card to each pupil, taking one herself. The 
teacher begins the game by saying, “I wish I were an apple tree. 
If I were an apple tree, I would give a big red apple to each little 
boy who passed by.” 

Each child follows in the same manner, using his own word. Later 
pupils may use these sentences as beginning of imagination stories. 

This game may be varied by putting appropriate adjectives before 
the noun, as “ I wish I were an old, gnarled, wide-spreading apple 
tree,” etc. The teacher must insist upon the correct form and correct 
use of a and an. Refer to these as “ Rules of the game.” 

Or choose partners. Pass cards to questioners. No. 1 asks, “ If 
you were a-, what would you do ? ” etc. His partner re¬ 
plies, “ If I were a -,” etc. The list of words may vary 

so that Indian, Eskimo, flowers, spring of water, king, knight in 
Arthur’s court, are all suggested. 

2. The Fairy I Y and. —Let each pupil draw a number. The fairy 
wand is given first to pupil No. 1 who holds it up and makes a wish, 
as, “ I wish I were a brownie.” 

Pupil No. 2 then asks, “ If you were a brownie what would you 
do? ” Pupil No. 1 must then reply by telling something he would 
do, as, “ If I were a brownie I’d slip into Santa’s sleigh on Christmas 
Eve and fill the stockings of every poor little girl and boy I know.” 

He then passes the wand on to pupil No. 2, who makes a wish as 
before. Pupil No. 3 asks the question of pupil No. 2. Thus the 
game goes round the class. 

3. The good fairy. —Another fairy game is played as follows: 
Select one child for the fairy, another for a bird, another for a boy, 
another for a girl, another for a squirrel. The fairy passes by, and 
each in turn calls out to her for a wish. 

Boy. Oh, Good Fairy, hear me, give me a wish to-day. 

Fairy. What do you wish for? 

Boy. I wish there were swimming here. 

Fairy. Behold! There is a swimming pool behind you. I wish 
there were more little boys to swim with you. 

Girl. Oh, Good Fairy, give me a wish to-day. 

Fairy. What can I do for you? 

Girl. I wish the sun were shining so I could go and play. 

Fairy. Behold! There is the sunshine. I wish there were more 
little girls to play with you. 

Bird. Oh, Good Fairy, grant me a wish, too. 

Fairy. What do you wish for? 

Bird. I wish there were a few worms here for my little birds. 

Fairy. Behold! There are some worms on the ground for you. 
I wish there were more. 




INCORRECT USE OF MOOD. 


59 


Squirrel. Oh, Good Fairy, give me a wish. 

Fairy. For what do you wish? 

Squirrel. I wish there were nuts here so I could gather my winter’s 
store. 

Fairy. Behold! There are the nuts. I wish there were many 
more busy squirrels like you. 

4. Dreams. —The basis for the rest of the games for training in the 
correct use of mood is this: 

Teacher. Children, all sit back in your seats. Close your eyes. Go 
to sleep. Dream that you are not a boy or a girl, but are some ani¬ 
mal or flower or tree. (Waits while they dream). Wake up ! What 
did you dream that you were, John? 

John. I dreamed that I was a fish. 

Teacher. If you were a fish, what would you do? 

John. If I were a fish, I would swim. 

Teacher. Mary, what did you dream that you were ? 

Mary. I dreamed that I was a butterfly. 

Teacher. If you were a butterfly, what would you do ? 

Mary. If I were a butterfly, I would fly high in the air. 

Continue as long as the children are interested. If they fail to 
dream of a variety of things, the teacher may be a fairy and whisper 
a name to them while they sleep. 

Sentence testing .— Many sentences are given to be tested thus: 

If he were here (he is not here), he would help you. 

If he had come (he did not come), you would have seen him. 

If I were sure (but I am not), I should be happy. 

I wish there were swimming (but there is not). 

If this is possible (I assume it is), he always comes. 

Were he a millionaire, I could not respect him. 

II. DRILLS. 

After the uses of the subjunctive have been explained, understood, 
and learned, the conjugation of subjunctive mood, is memorized. 
Then the most essential thing is drill. “ The correct form should al¬ 
ways be heard in the school room, and in general there should be 
more drill in building sentences than in tearing them down.” 
“ Drills and exercises to fix the correct use of mood may be made very 
interesting, because the average pupil hears the incorrect form 
oftener than the correct, and is so sure that he knows. Therefore the 
live teacher may have many helpful discussions and even 4 polite ar¬ 
guments.’” Even when the pupil knows the rules, he is prone to 
be confused sometimes in the application. It is drilling until the ear 
is trained and the tongue gives the form automatically that counts 
for most. 


60 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


Drills like the following are placed on the board and used fre¬ 
quently : 

(a) If I were. If we were. If she were. 

If you were. If you were. If Mary were. 

If he were. If they were. If John were. 

(&) Suppose I were, etc. 

(c) I wish I were, etc. 


Chapter XI. 

DOUBLE SUPERLATIVES. 


I. STORY. 

Tell the story of Snow White and follow it with a dialogue on this 
order: 

Who was Snow White? She was a princess. 

Who was the queen? She was Snow White’s stepmother. 

Did she love Snow White. No; not at all. 

Why not? Because Snow White was beautiful. 

But was not the queen beautiful too? Yes; but Snow White was 
more beautiful than the queen. 

What did the queen ask the mirror? The queen asked the mirror 
who was the most beautiful in the kingdom. 

What did the mirror tell her? It told her that she was the 
most beautiful in the kingdom, but that Snow White, who lived 
with the Seven Little Men, was the most beautiful in the world. 

II. GAMES. 

In teaching the comparison of adjectives and in the subsequent 
drill, actions play a very subordinate part in explanations. Conse¬ 
quently, it seems well to consider them only in connection with 
the other general exercises. 

Colors. —A box of crayons is placed on the desk. The teacher calls 
on Mary, who hides her eyes, and then on Helen, who comes forward 
and selects a color. When Helen has chosen one the class says, 
“ Ready.” Mary looks up, and Helen says, “ Guess what color I 
chose as the most beautiful.” 

Mary. You think blue is the most beautiful. 

Helen. No; it is not blue. 

Mary. Then, you think green is more beautiful than blue. 

Helen. Yes; it is green I like best. 

The teacher then calls on two more children, and the game goes on. 
This game might be varied by alternating the color liked best with 
the one liked least. 




DOUBLE SUPERLATIVES. 


61 


III. EXERCISES. 

1. Comparison of adjectives—knowledge of grammar not in¬ 
volved. —Compare various objects in the room as to color or size 
and so on. Compare the height of two pupils. Which of the boys 
is taller, Sam or Ted? Which of these two pictures is more beauti¬ 
ful? 

In the same way by using three or more objects the idea of the 
superlative is developed. The children may be asked to frame a 
sentence concerning one of the articles with reference to the other 
two. The shortest pencil is the sharpest. If one of the pencils is 
removed, the sentence becomes: The shorter is the sharper. The 
same process is repeated with other objects and other qualities. The 
yellow daisy has the shortest stem. A clear idea of this use may 
be gained from the following description: The material used is two 
pencils, one with no point, the other with a broken point. A teacher 
says, “ Let us look at these two pencils. What kind of a point has 
this one in my left hand ? ” “ It has a bad point.” “ What kind 
of a point has this other pencil ? ” “ It has a bad point, too.” “ Is 
it the same as the other? ” “ No; it is worse.” “ Now, tell the whole 
story.” “ The point of the pencil in your right hand is worse than 
the point of the pencil in your left hand.” In a like manner colors 
may be used for the pupils to decide which shades are lighter or 
darker than others, or which are most beautiful. 

One of the steps necessary early in the teaching, though by no 
means the first one, is checking up on the earlier preparation to make 
sure that the pupil fully understands what is meant by positive, 
comparative, and superlative degree. The pupil should be perfectly 
sure that when only two things are compared the comparative degree 
is used; that when more than two things are compared the superla¬ 
tive degree is used. Sometimes drawing a stepladder with three 
steps helps visualize the idea. On the first step is written, for in¬ 
stance, “ Beautiful,” on the second “ More beautiful,” on the third 
step “ Most beautiful.” The thought is developed that if one stands 
on the third step he can go no higher on that ladder, and that another 
ladder of the same height can afford no help, as the highest point 
has already been attained. Therefore one ladder is all that is neces¬ 
sary for reaching the desired place. 

2. Comparison of adjectives—knowledge of grammar involved .— 
(a) Comparison of adjectives that end in —er, —est. —When two 
things are compared, as “ This book is prettier than that book,” most 
adjectives end in -er; but when more than two things are compared, 
as, “Of all my books, this is the smallest,” the adjectives usually 
end in -est. To this is added the idea that adjectives of one syllable 
and adjectives of two syllables, if easily pronounced, are compared 
by these endings -er and -est. 


62 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


(£>) Comparison of adjectives by more and most. —The pupils are 
next ready to learn after many illustrations have been given of adjec¬ 
tives ending in -er and -est that adjectives may also be compared by 
using in front of them more or most —that is, by adding words (ad¬ 
verbs) ; the endings -er and -est are used with words of one syllable 
and sometimes of two, while the words are used with longer adjec¬ 
tives, as stronger, strongest, lighter, lightest, more beautiful, most 
beautiful. Emphasis should be placed strongly on the number of 
syllables in a word, and on the sound, as euphony largely determines 
the choice between -er and -est and the adverbs more and most. Par¬ 
ticularly in the lower grades should euphony play a large part. 
Here the teacher asks, “ Which sounds better to you, 4 This is the 
most beautif ulest I have ever seen,’ or i This is the most beautiful ’ ? ” 
In this respect, at least, the children’s ears sowi respond readily and 
rightly to the correct form. 

( c) Irregular comparisons. —Finally the pupils are ready to learn 
that some adjectives are not compared by adding -er or -est or by 
using more or most, but by changing their form entirely; good , better , 
best; bad , worse , worst. These forms must be learned. They should 
be put upon the board, recited in chorus and individually by the 
pupils, and used in sentences both oral and written. 

{d) General observations and directions. —To correct the fault of 
the double comparative, especially after the pupils have learned the 
methods governing the comparison of adjectives, one device suggested 
several times is to show the absurdity of comparing the same word 
by two methods at the same time. The teacher explains that such 
a heaping of terms is called a double comparison. Sometimes she 
may also explain that such a use was at one time common in English, 
so that we find in Shakespeare more braver , most unkindest; but such 
expressions are not used by our writers of the present day. 

(e) Reviewing and testing information. —After the pupils have 
been familiarized with explanations, various methods are used for re¬ 
viewing and testing their information. Sometimes from sentences 
they are asked to pick out the simple adjective and compare it. Again, 
what three degrees of comparison of adjectives have we? What 
three ways have we of changing the positive to the comparative, or 
superlative? What kind of adjectives add -est to form the superla¬ 
tive ? What part of the word darker says more ? 

IV. DRILLS. 

1. Lists. —One method of drilling the pupils consists in placing a 
list of adjectives on the board. These the pupils are required to com¬ 
pare quickly. A list of adjectives irregular in their comparison 
should be memorized and used frequently in oral drill. The most 


CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 


63 


drill naturally should fall upon the most puzzling one. Sometimes, 
instead of giving the degree of comparison, the pupils are asked to 
use the different forms in sentences. 

2. Ladders and triangles .—Sometimes for drill work the ladder 
suggested under the explanation of degrees of comparison is used; 
or three triangles of increasing sizes may sometimes be substituted. 
Only one word can be balanced on the point. With three triangles 
before him, the child is to point quickly to the one where the form 
he reads from a list belongs. 

3. Other methods .—Adjectives are selected from sentences on the 
board or in text books, and each one capable of comparison is com¬ 
pared. One report suggests that, “ It gives pupils power to have a 
mental picture of a page of compared words. Most pupils learn 
by being able to recall work as reference on which to build new 
language expressions.” Much drill finally is given in sentence build¬ 
ing both oral arid written. 

The main elements emphasized in teaching the correct use of the 
comparative and superlative degrees are: (a) Have the pupils under¬ 
stand the meaning of the degrees of comparison; (b) Teach the 
pupils that it is incorrect to use double comparatives and superla¬ 
tives; and ( c) Drill. 

Chapter XII. 

CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 


Games, drills, and exercises on this subject should extend through 
the whole school life of a pupil, for no other error is so widely made 
by all classes. Furthermore, the teacher should never miss an 
opportunity of calling a pupil’s attention tactfully to the incorrect 
form, so that he will be alert in watching for such errors among 
his classmates. 

I. GAMES. 

1. School. —Children, even good-sized ones, like to play school. 
I have had good results and interesting lessons, when occasionally 
I have turned the class over to them. Selecting some child whose 
language is good and who is sensitive to incorrect forms, I give him 
a list of incorrect sentences and have him read them one at a time, 
calling on some other child to correct the form. 

2. Employment agency .—John stands in front of the room and 
plays he keeps an employment agency. The other children are 
people who wish to do some work. Each child decides what kind 



64 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


of work he can do. When they have decided, they raise their hands 
and John calls on different ones: 

John. Mary, what can you do well ? 

Mary. I am a good writer, and I write well. 

J ohn. I know a man who wants a good writer who can write well. 

Ned, what can you do well? 

Ned. I am a good tailor, and I can sew well. 

John answers as before. He then continues calling on different 
children and receiving answers as, “ I am a good cook and can cook 
well.” “ I am a good blacksmith,” etc. 

3. Well , well , well .—Call on different pupils to describe, in three 
sentences, using well in each sentence, the dress of any child they 
choose. The other pupils guess who is being described. 

4. Fill in the blanks .—While one child is out of the room the 
others select some adjective and also its adverbial form, assigning 
these alternately to the members of the class. The child sent out 
returns and asks questions of the children in the order in which they 
sit. The child questioned answers, using the word form assigned 
him, but instead of saying the word out loud he says [blank] in its 
place. If he uses the form incorrectly, the other children raise their 
hands and give a fitting answer. The questioner continues asking 
questions of different children until he guesses the adjective and 
adverb. 

5. Alternate sentences .—At times the teacher, after putting a list 
of adjectives and adverbs on the board, may divide the class into 
two sides and write the names of the two divisions on the board near 
the list of words. She then calls upon the children from the two 
sides alternately to make sentences, using the words in the list 
together with an adverb modifier in the order in which they are 
written. Every time a child makes a correct sentence the teacher 
puts a mark in the space allotted to his division. At the end of the 
period the marks of each division are counted; the side having the 
most credits wins. 

6. “Artist Words .”—Little people may be brought to understand 
adjectives and adverbs better by playing artist. The teacher begins 
by saying, “ Let us play artist and paint some pictures, word pic¬ 
tures. I shall paint a rose. What color shall it be ? ” 

Children. Red. 

Teacher. Mary, what will you paint? 

Mary. A house. 

Teacher. What kind of a house? 

Mary. A new house. 

After having a list of nouns to which suitable adjectives have been 
prefixed, the teacher explains that these “artist words” are called 
adjectives. He then continues, “Adjectives have some cousins that 


CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 


65 


often resemble them. They are called adverbs. They never paint 
lovely pictures. They are always busy answering questions. See if 
you know them and can tell me which one to use. The river flows 
(how) ? ” 

Children. Swiftly. 

Other sentences are given in which the children supply the adverbs. 

II. EXERCISES. 

The use of a word in the sentence, the kind of idea it expresses, 
determines what part of speech it is. The chief and really only 
way of distinguishing between adjectives and adverbs is by their 
use in the sentence. One of the first things to make clear, then, is 
the use of the two classes of words. 

1. What question does the word answer? —-The teacher may write 
on the board, “ These apples are good,” and “ He is a good boy.” 
After which he may ask, “What do we find out in the first sen¬ 
tence ? ” 

Children. We find out that the apples are good. 

Teacher. What else could we say? 

Children . We know what kind of apples they are. 

The teacher then emphasizes what kind, and deals with the second 
sentence in the same manner, showing that it tells what kind of 
boy he is. 

From such a beginning she proceeds to show (1) that adjectives 
or adjective modifiers answer the question what , as, The rose is mine. 
What rose? The red rose. Red is an adjective modifying rose. (2) 
That adverbs answer the questions vjhere , why , how , when ,, as , The 
boy runs quickly in the yard. Runs how? Quickly. Runs where? 
In the yard. Hence quickly and in the yard are adverbial modifiers. 
(3) That regular adjectives as quick, slow, pretty, etc., become ad¬ 
verbs by adding -ly. 

2. What kind of a word is modified? —One explanation of the 
adverb is that it is something added to a verb to tell us a fact about 
that verb. Thus slowly , quickly , lightly , coldly , are all ad-verbs. 
Combined with a word of motion or state or condition, they tell us 
something about the actions. Such words often end in - ly ; then 
they are easily distinguished. But sometimes they have the same 
form as the adjective or are unique in form. Whenever one wishes 
to know whether to use an adjective or an adverb, the chief test is 
to ask whether the word tells something about a noun, the name of 
a person or thing, or whether it tells something about the action of 
the verb. If it is telling about a noun, an adjective form is used; 
if about a verb, the adverbial modifier. Emphasis clearly should be 
placed on this fact that adjectives tell about or modify nouns. The 


66 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


children ought to be able to respond quickly to “ How do we recog¬ 
nize an adjective ? ” “An adjective always modifies a noun.” In the 
same way the teacher must drive home the fact that the adverb tells 
about the verb. The sentence, “ The fast horse ran rapidly,” may 
illustrate, what kind of a horse? What kind of a word is fast? Fast 
is an adjective because it modifies a noun. How did the horse run ? 
What part of speech is rapidly? How do you know? Because it 
tells about the verb. If the meaning of modifies is not clear, take a 
piece of paper and tear off one corner. “ What have I done ? ” “ You 
have torn the paper.” “I have modified it. I have changed it so 
it isn’t now quite the same as it was before.” 

3. How many questions may an adverb answer? —After the nature 
of adverbs has been developed, show the children that most of them 
end in -ly and answer one of four questions; how , when , where , and 
how much. Thus, in the sentence, “Run as quickly as you can,” 
quickly is used because it tells how and modifies the verb; in “ My, 
you write well,” well is used because it tells how you write; in 
“ Surely, I will,” surely tells how I will. Considering the sentence, 
“ The rose smells sweetly,” another teacher approaches it by asking, 
“ Does smells denote action ? Substitute is and read. Does it sound 
correct? What is the syntax after is? Is sweetly an adjective or 
adverb? Which form is needed here? Then she explains that 
after such verbs as feel , taste , smell , look , seem , turn , we should use 
an adjective if we wish to describe the subject, an adverb if we wish 
to tell the manner of the action expressed in the verb. Thus, “ We 
say, ‘we feel warmly on this subject ’ when we mean that our feelings 
are stirred up.” 

4. Summary of exercises. — (a) Review the lessons on the adjective 
and have plenty of drill work on the selection of the adjectives, with 
the reason given why each particular word selected is an adjective. 

( b) Review lesson on the adverb. Have a great deal of drill work 
on the selection of adverbs, with the reason given why each particular 
word selected is an adverb. 

(c) Select adjectives that are often confused with adverbs and 
show that when the word is used to describe the person or thing, an 
adjective should be used; but when the word is used to show the 
manner in which an action is performed, an adverb must be selected 

III. DRILLS. 

Perhaps too much stress can not be placed on the uses of the adjec¬ 
tives and of the adverb. A thorough drill and understanding of 
these, together with the application of a little thought avoids the 
confusion between the two. Over and over again the pupil should 
revolve the fact that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other ad¬ 
verbs, and that most words ending in -ly are adverbs. 


CONFUSION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 


67 


It is difficult for young children to discriminate between adjectives 
and adverbs, so that much reliance must be laid on drill in the use 
of such words as well , good , very. 

1. How shall it be done ?—One form of drill to which the pupils 
respond quite readily consists in having each child tell another child 
in turn to perform some act, and in the telling use an adverb. 

Tom. Lucy, run quickly to the door. 

Lucy. Certainly, I shall. ( She does so.) 

Lucy. Sarah, write a word neatly on the board. 

If the request is not made correctly, the one asked need not re¬ 
spond. On the other hand, if he forgets so far as to make a slip, 
he is deprived of executing the command. Each child is allowed his 
turn in giving commands and may give as many as the time, size of 
class, or prevalence of the error requires. The same idea prevails in 
the suggestion to choose a leader who may select a group of helpers. 
The leader gives commands to each child, as, “ Tom, run as quickly 
as you can around the room;” “Jenny, walk as slowly as you can 
down the aisle.” Each child must obey unless the leader makes a 
mistake, when he must go to his seat and another takes his place. 

2. Lists. —One of the most frequent methods of drill is to have a 
list of adjectives and adverbs in two columns: 


quick 

slow 

neat 


quickly 

slowly 

neatly 


graceful 

industrious 


gracefully 

industriously 


These are used in sentences given rapidly; the girls sometimes 
making sentences from the adjective column, while the boys use the 
adverbs. The adverbs need not be given. Instead, the pupils are 
asked to use the words in the first column to describe a person or 
thing; next, to these same words, add -ly and use the word to tell 
how something was done. Then if both the adjective and adverb 
must be used in the same sentence the pupil’s ability is tested. The 
horse travels slowly; therefore he is a slow horse. 

3. How many can you write ?—Another drill suggested is as fol¬ 
lows: Each row of pupils is given a noun. One pupil from each 
row works at the board, preferably at the back board, to avoid giv¬ 
ing suggestions to those seated. At a given signal all write as many 
well-chosen adjectives as they can in three minutes to describe their 
noun. No incongruous, inappropriate adjective will be considered. 
The lists on the board are examined and discussed, and additions 
are made to each list from those at their seats. The same drill may 
be used for adverbs and for phrases. It is a helpful way to enlarge 
the pupil’s vocabulary. 


68 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 


Here again the correct form is displayed and drilled upon to estab¬ 
lish correct habits of speech. 

The boy is swift. Quick, rapid, slow. 

The boy runs swiftly, quickly, rapidly, slowly. 

The pupil is also given sentences for which he must select the word, 
as “The boy runs quickly,” and thus creates the habit of selecting 
the best word to express an idea or to describe an object. 

4. Prove it .—Still another method of drill involves testing the 
pupil’s knowledge. The pupils are asked to analyze sentences which 
contain the two parts of speech, adjectives and adverbs. They must 
prove whether the word is an adjective or an adverb by telling which 
word and which part of speech it modifies. After the correct form 
is given, a repetition of it by several children will help to make a 
lasting impression. 

Chapter XIII. 

MISPLACED MODIFIERS. 

No stories, poems, or games are suggested to vivify the training in 
the correct use of modifiers. Even the actions are quite limited. 

I. GAMES. 

A kindred use of objects results when the teacher gives to each 
child a number of buttons, varying the number with the children. 
One of the children asks the others in turn, “ How many buttons 
have you? ” “I have three.” “I have only two,” or “just one.” 
The children march past a child at the desk, leaving a varying num¬ 
ber of buttons. Further drill is afforded this time in response to 
“ How many buttons have you ? ” to those who have descended to 
only one or two. 

II. EXERCISES. 

Naturally the exercises and explanations vary. Yet in this case 
there is really much less divergence of opinion and methods than in 
many of the other sections. For little people this type of error is 
regarded as too technical to be entered into, except to train the child 
to arrange and rearrange the parts of the sentence until it becomes 
clear which is the best form to convey the meaning intended. 

1. Sound .—■“ In my experience I have had very little trouble with 
misplaced modifiers, as the children seem to be governed by the sound 
of the sentence.” “ Such errors can be corrected by placing the cor¬ 
rect forms on the board and having the children repeat them aloud 
often until the ear becomes accustomed to the correct forms.” “ If 
an error is made and escapes unnoticed by the children, it should be 




MISPLACED MODIFIERS. 69 

corrected by the teacher, and the forms illustrating the correct posi¬ 
tion read from the board.” 

2. Meaning. — (a) Do you mean what you saidf One of the chief 
points to be emphasized in dealing with misplaced modifiers is the 
meaning of the sentence. The sentences causing trouble should be 
analyzed, the meaning of each explained, the thought tested to see if 
it is really what the speaker intended to say. 

One of the most advantageous times for considering an error in the 
placing of a modifier is when returning or checking up on spelling or 
arithmetic papers or in timing seat work. If the work is not such 
that an interruption will prove serious, the teacher may ask from time 
to time, “How many sentences have you yet to write? ” “I have 
only three more.” “How many have only two more problems to 
solve? ” “I have only two more.” If this form is not given cor¬ 
rectly, the teacher repeats the question and stresses the point until 
the pupil sees which word is modified. The teacher may further 
guide this work by asking in connection with such a sentence as “ I 
just have one to do,” “ Do you intend to emphasize have or one? ” 
In such cases as the sentence “ I only have one wrong,” the questions 
may be, “Is it only have or only one?” or “You only have one 
wrong? Has no other child one wrong? ” Hands are raised. “ What 
made you think that you were the only child having one wrong ?” 
or “ Mary only has one wrong; then all the others are 100 per cent.” 
“ No; John has two wrong; George has three wrong. You said that 
you were the only one that is wrong.” “ I didn’t mean that. I meant 
that I had only one wrong.” By means of these questions the chil¬ 
dren are led to see that by inappropriate position of the modifier an 
ambiguous or wholly wrong meaning may be brought to mind. One 
helpful device, here as in most other corrections, is to get the pupils 
enthusiastic over “catching” one another. When this specific is 
fully at work the teacher will find her burden much lighter. 

(b) What does the modifier mean? —One good method of showing 
the force of modifier is that of placing it in as many positions as pos¬ 
sible in a single sentence or in several similar ones. For example, the 
sentence to begin with is “ I have one wrong ”; to this only is to be 
added wherever possible. The children readily give “ I only have 
one wrong,” “ I have only one wrong,” “ Only I have one wrong,” 
“ I have one only wrong.” The teacher then asks the class to 
analyze the sentences and to explain the different meanings. In 
such sentences as “ She is only a child ” and “ She is an only child ” 
the pupils will have no difficulty in seeing the difference in meaning. 
The class may be led to see that the difference also in “ I only said 
one” (I said it, but did not write it); “ Only I said one” (it was 
I and no one else said one); “ I said only one ” (I said one and not 
two). With a little training along this line the pupils will soon 


70 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS ENGLISH. 


be able to distinguish quite readily shades of meaning. Pupils 
should then be given further drill in changing the positions of 
modifiers and in showing the resulting change in meaning; they 
should be required to bring to class illustrative sentences which 
they have found in textbooks, readers, magazines, or papers; finally 
they should be drilled in writing sentences to express different mean¬ 
ings, explaining clearly the import of each sentence. 

( c ) Where should the modifier standf —The establishment of a 
rule will help in determining whether the modifier has been placed 
correctly. Sometimes the teacher develops the idea in some such 
fashion as this: 

We like to have the things that belong to us somewhere near us. You lend 
your friend a book; and, if you are fond of the book, in due time you like to 
have him return it. Much the same is true of words in sentences; they like 
to have the words that modify them near by. Then the principal words are 
happier, and the whole sentence does its duty better. 

Again— 

The pupils are told that a modifier must be placed near the word which it 
describes or limits. Then they are given many simple subjects and predicates, 
such, for,example, as dog ran, cat ate, etc., to which they add modifiers, show¬ 
ing in each case how the meaning is changed by the addition, and explaining 
why they added the word just where they did. 

The following exercise may serve to emphasize the importance of 
the position of a modifier in a sentence. Write the following sen¬ 
tences and modifiers on the board: 

The flower is growing in the pot 
The little girl is hiding behind the tree 
The child is sick in bed 
The boy is playing in the park 

(1) Teacher. Think of a sentence in which the modifier in the pot 
is used to tell which flower is growing. 

Pupils. The flower in the pot is growing. 

Teacher. Which flower is growing? 

Pupils. The flower in the pot. 

Teacher. In the pot then modifies which word ? 

Pupils. In the pot modifies the word “ flower.” 

Teacher. What important word is it near ? 

Pupils. It is near the word “ flower.” 

Teacher. Inclose the modifier in the pot in parentheses and indi¬ 
cate the word which it modifies. 

Pupils. The flower (in the pot) is growing. 

The teacher repeats the process with the other sentences, using the 
phrase as a modifier of a noun. 

(2) Teacher. Think of a sentence in which the modifier (in the 
pot) is used to tell where the flower growing. 


DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 


71 


III. DRILLS. 

After all this preparatory work several methods are used for drill. 

1. Lists. — (a) Words. — (1) It is well to have memorized a list of 
commonly used words which frequently cause trouble by being mis¬ 
placed, and which must be placed next to the words they modify: 
Only, merely, just, almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, quite, nearly. 

(2) The teacher writes the word just on the blackboard and tells 
the children they are to use that word in answer to every question. 
How many books have you? How many flags are in this room? 
How many more problems have you to solve? are some of the ques¬ 
tions asked. 

(h) Sentences. —(1) Place on the board a list of sentences, the 
meaning of which is to be explained: He only loaned me $5. He 
loaned me only $5. He only hinted it to me. He hinted it only to 
me. I only saw him yesterday. I saw him only yesterday. 


Chapter XIV. 

DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 

I. POEMS AND STORIES. 

Perhaps one of the first things to be done here is to secure an 
introduction to the negative family. 

1. “The Negative Family! Let’s learn all their names; None, 
Nobody, Nothing, and Never. Not, Neither, Nor, No. They con¬ 
tradict so. Only two get along well together. Neither, Nor.” The 
quarrelsomeness of the family is again revealed in— 

Negatives double 
Cause trouble. 

After the general family trait has once been understood, all the 
correction that is necessary may be a reference to the negative family 
or negative double. 

2. A little story that serves occasionally as a timely reminder is 
that of the boy, who, on being asked for the core when he was eating 
an apple replied, “ There ain’t going to be no core.” “ While the 
story is a crude one, it has been very helpful at times.” The teacher 
after having applied the story once needs, when the two negatives 
are used together, only reply, “ There ain’t going to be no core,” 
to convey the impression and suggest correction. 

3. Si Hopkins. —In the same manner can be used also the remark of 
Si Hopkins, “ I never do nothin’ for nobody that don’t do nothin’ 
53613°—23-6 




72 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


for me.” Sometimes the comment itself is repeated; at other times 
only, “ Remember Si Hopkins.” This always causes laughter, but 
reminds pupils that a double negative has been used. 

II. DRAMATIZATION. 

1. Polly's Mistakes .— 

When Polly first came to live in the city -with her grandmother, 
she made queer mistakes. In the country, where she had lived, there 
was one store for everything; so she thought that in the city she 
could buy in one store everything she wanted. 

After hearing the story of Polly’s search for candy, the children 
will undoubtedly enjoy acting the story. No properties are neces¬ 
sary. The milliner, the florist, the grocer, the baker, the dry goods 
merchant, the butcher, the keeper of the fish market, and many other 
merchants may be represented, each by one of the pupils. Besides 
these characters, there are Polly and her grandmother. 

Grandmother. Polly, here are 10 cents for you to spend just as 
you wish. 

Polly. Thank you, Grandmother, I had not had any candy for a 
long time, so I shall buy some. 

Polly then goes to the butcher’s. 

Polly. I want to buy some candy, please. 

Butcher. I haven’t any. This isn’t a candy store. 

This dialogue is repeated at each store. Finally Polly returns to 
her grandmother without any candy. 

Polly. This is the strangest place, Grandmother. None of the 
stores have any candy. Our store at home always has some. 

Grandmother. You must have gone to the wrong store. None of 
the stores keeps candy but the candy store. I shall go with you now 
and we may find some. 

The two start, for the candy store where Polly at last makes her 
purchase. 

Polly. Have you any licorice? 

Confectioner. I have no licorice. 

Polly. Have you any marshmallows? 

Confectioner. Yes, I have some. 

Polly. I should like 10 cents’ worth. 

This gives an opportunity to many children to play, for almost 
as many stores may be represented as there are children. Those left 
at their seats may be policemen. If one of them catches a merchant 
using a double negative, the policeman may “ arrest ” the merchant; 
that is, send him to his seat to become a policeman. The one making 
the arrest may then become the merchant. In this manner all the 
pupils may be kept interested. The dialogue should be spoken 


DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 


78 


rapidly, for speed will prove the pitfall for the careless; hence 
teach them the necessity for speaking correctly, even when in haste, 
if they wish to avoid the arm of the law. 

III. GAMES. 

1. Button , Button , Have You the Button ?—The game most often 
recommended for correcting the double negative is a form of the 
old button, button, which has previously been described in Chapter 
II. Here the pupils are asked not, “ Who has the button or penny 
or ring?” but “ Have you the button? ” The responses are usually 
“ I haven’t any,” or “ I haven’t the button, ring, or cent,” whichever 
is being used. The pupils make the motion of passing the object 
until told by the leader to stop. Then the questioner begins to guess 
who holds the object. 

2. Mind Reading. —As mistakes in using the double negative are 
made from time to time by the children, the teacher writes the correct 
form on the board. When there is a list of several, a game is played. 
One child says, “ I am thinking of a sentence on the board.” The 
children in the seats guess which one it is by asking, “ Is it ‘ I have no 
pencil ? ’ ” The questions continue until the sentence the child was 
thinking of is given. 

3. Have You a Bird? —The children write on slips of paper the 

names of birds, flowers, or objects on their desks as the teacher sug¬ 
gests. These slips are exchanged. The teacher becomes a guesser. 
Against her, score is kept. Her object, seemingly, is to see how many 
correct guesses she can make. She guesses, “Have you a bird? a 
robin? a bluejay? a sparrow? a blackbird?” The game affords 
plenty of repetition of “ I have no-.” 

4. Did You Get Something? —Many objects are placed on the table. 
The children close their eyes as each takes an object. When all the 
objects have been taken, the children open their eyes. All those who 
have objects remain standing. May, who has taken a pencil, asks 
some other child standing, “ Sarah, did you get a pencil? ” Her ob¬ 
ject is to guess an object which Sarah does not have. If she suc¬ 
ceeds in this, she remains standing while Sarah guesses further. If 
she fails, she must take her seat, the object being to see how many 
can remain standing. 

5. The Neighborhood Grocery or The Corner Store. —Once in a 
while an interesting lesson may result from playing store. One 
child is storekeeper. Others come to buy. Of course, occasionally 
the storekeeper is out of things. A customer asks, “ Have you any 
eggs to-day? ” The storekeeper answers, “No; I haven’t any eggs.” 
“Haven’t you any butter either?” Very little help in the way of 



74 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS’ ENGLISH. 


suggestions is needed from the teacher. Children readily play this, 
and “ I haven’t ” is not such a bugbear as in doing less interesting 
things. 

HI. EXERCISES. 

In turning now to the explanations and exercises dealing with the 
double negative one finds matters more complicated. Two main 
methods are used in teaching the avoidance of the double negative. 
One of these is based on faith on the child’s part; that is, he is to 
believe what is told him with the prospect that some day he may 
understand. The second includes explanations which try to make 
plain the use and meaning of single and double negatives. 

1. The use of the negative .—In the first place the teacher en¬ 
deavors to show clearly the use of the negative. To do this he writes 
on the board two sentences, “ I have a pencil,” “ I have no pencil.” 

Teacher. What is the meaning of the first sentence? 

Pupils. It means you own or possess a pencil. 

Teacher. What is the meaning of the second sentence ? 

Pupil. You do not possess a pencil. 

Teacher. Does the second sentence mean the same as the first? 

Pupils. No; it means just the opposite. 

Teacher. Then we may say that the second sentence denies what I 
declared to be true in the first. Which word did the denying? 

Pupils. No. 

The teacher then proceeds with similar sentences until several 
negatives have been used. The sentences are left on the board. 

Teacher. We now have a number of words which tell me whether 
a thing is true or not. Suppose we make a list of them. 

He writes on the board as the children name them: No, not, never, 
nothing, nobody, none, neither. 

Teacher. These are short words, but they have a long name. 
They are called negatives. The word negative comes from another 
word which means to deny. Let us count these words. How many 
did you find? 

Pupils. Seven. 

Teacher. How many did you find in each sentence? 

Pupils. One. 

Teacher. Now, there is something we must remember about these 
seven little words. We can use only one negative in one statement. 

This last statement is written on the board. 

Teacher. How many children? 

Pupils. We can use only one negative in a statement. 

The children are then allowed to make sentences containing the 
negatives. Here the meaning of the negative is made clear. The 
children are not expected to understand that two negative statements 


DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 75 

make an affirmative. They are simply told not to use two negative 
words in the same sentence. 

2. The use of the negative explained .—This second method uses 
several types of explanation, each of which endeavors to clarify the 
point. 

(a) “I make the children realize that two words of the same 
meaning are not only more than necessary, but are so unnecessary 
that they make a difference in the meaning. I take the two negatives 
and place them side by side on the board showing that they are just 
as wrong when separated by one or more words as when they are 
placed side by side.” 

(b) ‘‘This comment paves the way for an explanation that is 
frequently made, namely, that the expression is redundant. When 
two negatives are used I show that the word no is equivalent to not 
any , then by writing the sentence on the board and having the 
children read it, they come to see by the sound that one negative 
is superfluous. I did not get not any excuse. This he is willing to 
change to ‘ I didn’t get any excuse.’ Teach that one no in a sentence 
expresses the negative, therefore no other negative is necessary.” 

3. The meaning of the sentence. —After the pupils have learned the 
effect of the double negative, if they consciously observe the meaning 
of the sentence when one occurs, they see the absurdity and are ready 
to say at once what they mean. One of the tests, then, is the meaning. 
What does the sentence really say? Is that what was really meant? 
By making it clear to the child that if he hadn’t no apples, the mean¬ 
ing he had not none, the child may come to see that not none may 
mean some. The double negative then comes to mean to him a posi¬ 
tive, after he really understands the meaning. The meaning of the 
sentence may be analyzed in some such way as this: “ I didn’t get no 
excuse.” What does didnH mean? Did not. What does no mean? 
Not. What does the sentence as it stands really mean? What mean¬ 
ing was intended? WTiat unnecessary word was used? To help in 
the understanding, the sentence is sometimes expanded, sometimes 
contracted. It becomes “ I did not get no excuse. I didn’t get no 
excuse. I didn’t get an excuse. I did get no excuse.” The meaning 
of each form is explained until the pupils come to learn the correct 
form. Sometimes if the pupil says, “ I never studied no words,” ask¬ 
ing him what he did study will cause him to explain his meaning. 
On the other hand, this may be explained by saying that no words 
means a lack of words, a vacancy. A piece of paper without writing 
represents no words. If the blank paper is what wasn’t studied, 
what was studied must have been paper with writing or some words 
on it; that is, some words must have been studied. After such a les¬ 
son a little boy said to me, “How foolish it is to study no words” 


76 GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 

Chapter XV. 

CONFUSION OF PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 


The recommendations made for treating the confusion of preposi¬ 
tions and conjunctions are noticeably less numerous than in many 
of the other cases. Several reasons for this paucity of material sug¬ 
gest themselves. One is that, “ This is a difficult form to correct.” 
Another, that only one type sentence was given in the questionnaire; 
another, that this feature is not especially emphasized in many 
schools. 

I. GAMES. 

1. Re looks as if he were -. This is a pantomine game simi¬ 

lar to “What Can You Do? ” and “What’s Your Trade? ” One 
child comes to the front of the room and imitates some action such as 
rocking a cradle, sowing seeds, playing horse, etc. The children at 
the seats comment, “ He looks as if he were playing horse.” “ He 
looks as if he were playing ball.” The child who guesses correctly 
what is being done may become the performer. (Any child who says 
“ He looks like he was playing ball ” may be penalized one point or 
more and not allowed to perform, although he guesses correctly. If 
sides are chosen, score may be kept, and the side making the fewer 
errors proclaimed the winner. This would stimulate more interest 
in the game.) 

2. Complete my sentence .—After the pupils have learned that like 
may not be followed by a statement and that as or as if should be, one 

of them begins a sentence: “ He looks like-” which a second 

pupil finishes. The pupil who finishes the first sentence starts 

another: “It feels as if-” which a third child finishes and 

so on. 

II. EXERCISES. 

One of the chief features to be emphasized in teaching the use 
of like as a preposition is the difference between like and as and the 
correct use of like. 

1. Difference between “ like ” and “ as .”•— (a) As. Place upon the 
board the following unit: 

1. John and James have a new canoe. 

2. Their father is teaching them to paddle. 

3. He tells them to sit in the canoe as he sits. 

4. They sit as he sits. 

5. He says, “ Hold your paddles as I hold mine!" 

6. They hold their paddles as he holds his. 

7. “ Stroke as I stroke,” says their father: 






CONFUSION OF PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 77 

8. They stroke as he strokes. 

9. They do as he does. 

Have the children read these sentences aloud. Then question as 
follows: * 

“ In sentences 3 and 4 what likeness is expressed?” 

The likeness of position of bodies.” 

“ Through what word is likeness expressed?” 

“ Through the word as” 

“ In sentences 5 and 6 what likeness is expressed?” 

“ The likeness of the position of the paddles.” 

“ Through what word is the likeness expressed?” 

“Through the word as” 

“ In sentences 7 and 8 what likeness is expressed ?” 

“ The likeness of method of stroking.” 

“ Through what word is the likeness expressed?” 

“ Through the word as ” 

“ In sentence 9 what likeness is expressed?” 

“ The likeness of action.” 

“ Through what word?” 

“As” 

“What is expressed in each sentence?” 

“ Likeness.” 

“ Through what is the likeness expressed?” 

“Through the word as” 

“ What is used each time after as f” 

“ A sentence or clause.” 

Deductions: Use as to show relation between sentences that express 
a likeness. 

(b) Like .—Place upon the board the following unit: 

1. Here is a picture of Ole, the immigrant. 

2. His hair is like flax. 

3. His eyes are not black like Pedro’s. 

4. They are blue like Blenda’s. 

5. His cheeks are like red roses. 

6. By and by he will wear shoes like yours, Fred. 

7. Does he come from a country like ours? 

Have the children read the sentences aloud. Then question as 
follows: 

“ In sentence 2 what likeness is expressed ? ” 

“ The color of hair and the color of flax.” 

“ Through what word is the likeness expressed ? ” 

“ Through the word like.” 

“ In sentence 4 what likeness is expressed ? ” 

“ The color of Ole’s and Blenda’s eyes.” 

“ What likeness is expressed in sentence 5 ? ” 


78 GAMES FOE IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH, 

“ The color of Ole’s cheeks and red roses.” 

“ Through what word in sentences 4 and 5 is likeness expressed ? ” 
“Through the word like” 

“ In sentence 6 what is the likeness expressed ? ” 

“ The likeness of Ole’s and Fred’s shoes.” 

“ Through what word ? ” 

“Through like” 

“ In sentence 7 what likeness is expressed ? ” 

“ The likeness of Ole’s country and our country.” 

“ Through what word ? ” 

“ Like” 

“ What is expressed in each sentence ? ” 

“ Likeness.” 

“Through what word is the likeness expressed?” 

“ Through the word like.” 

“ What relation does like show in each of the sentences?” 

“ The relation of words.” 

“Do you find in any case a sentence after like%” 

“ No; only words.” Deduction: Use like to show relation between 
words that express a likeness. 

Establish rules: I. As is used to show relation between sentences 
that express likeness. II. Like is used to show relations between 
words that express likeness. In order to test whether a statement or 
a word follows, this advice is used: (1) Can you sing as, or like, I 
do? (2) Can you sing as, or like, me? 

What follows in sentence number one ? Should as or like be used ? 
Why? 

The uses of like. —One teacher establishes the use of as , as if, or 
as through instead of like by teaching the various ways in which like 
may be used correctly, by means of which its service as a conjunctive 
is eliminated. To do this she places on the blackboard the following 
groups of sentences: 

Group I. 1. I shall not look upon his like again. 

2. You do not consider my likes and dislikes. 

Group II. 1. I like apples. 

2. I like to dance. 

3. The boys like history. 

Group III. 1. Write like me. 

2. He talks like a crazy man. 

3. He can write like Ruskin. 

4. She sings like a nightingale. 

The pupils are led to tell how the word like is used in the different 
groups. As they decide for each, the teacher writes over the first 
group of sentences, noun; over the second group, verb; over the third 


CONFUSION OF PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 79 

group, preposition. Following this she places on the board such 
sentences, as: 44 He looks like he is sick.” 44 Do like I do.” “ He 
talks like he knew* how to sail a boat.” The sentences are analyzed to 
find the function of like. When it is pronounced a conjunction the 
pupils are referred to the dictionary. 44 Occasionally it is well to 
have one pupil consult the dictionary right in the classroom, and 
report to the class just how the word like may be used. Is it ever a 
conjunction? No. But in the sentence here given a conjunction is 
needed, because the sentence is complex and needs a connecting 
word.” 

3. The connecting link between two clauses. —Sometimes the idea 

of the two clauses is developed in a manner like this: 44 To-day I 

heard a little girl say, 4 Helen tries to do like Mary.’ (This is written 
on the board.) Can any pupil tell how many sentences are in that 
one sentence? Bead the first one. Read the second. What word 
joined the two sentences? We may use the word like in many places, 
but we must never use it to join or connect two sentences, is is a 
conjunction and may introduce a clause; like is not a conjunction 
and should be substituted for as or as if.” 

Older pupils may learn that as is a conjunction introducing a 
clause; like is frequently a preposition introducing a phrase. They 
dwell upon the difference between a phrase and a clause and also upon 
the fact that the preposition needs an object that is a. noun or pro¬ 
noun, not a dependent clause. Thus, “ He acted like the rest did,” 
is vulgar; but 44 He acted as the rest did,” or 44 like the rest,” is correct. 

4. Like implies resemblance. —Another means often employed is 
that of impressing the fact that like implies resemblance. The 
teacher asks, 44 What does he look like?” 44 He looks like he was 
sick.” 44 Did you ever see a sick ? ” 44 What is a sick ? Could you see 
a sick standing before you?” The teacher then develops the fact 
that the word like in the sentence needs to be followed by something 
that is sick or, 44 Why is the word like used in this sentence ? ” 44 It is 
used that we may compare.” “What kind of things may be com¬ 
pared? ” 44 Only like things may be compared.” 44 Like what person 
does John look?” 44 It does not tell.” 44 Like what does it say he 
looks ? ” “ It says he looks like he is sick.” “ Is 4 he is sick ’ a person 
or a thing?” 44 It is neither a person nor a thing, but tells how he 
looked, not like whom he looks.” “Like, then, is used to indicate 
resembling or similar to and should be followed by the noun or pro¬ 
noun that names the person or thing resembled.” Sometimes the pu¬ 
pils may be told that like is used, generally, when it can be followed 
by to; otherwise as if is better English. 


80 GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS 7 ENGLISH. 

III. DRILLS. 

u Often a child will use the incorrect form because the correct has 
never really become part of his vocabulary.” 

1. Type sentence .—■“ Give a list of type sentences containing fre¬ 
quently confused forms and drill constantly on them until the pupil 
is so familiar with the correct form that the incorrect form calls 
attention to itself.” 

He looks like a king. 

He stands-a soldier. 

He walks as if he might be lata 

He studies as he should. 

Do as your teacher tells you. 

He looks like his father. 

He walks-his father. 

He acts as if he were ill. 

He sings-he had a cold. 

He walks-he were tired. 

They acted-they were bored. 

2. Elliptical sentences .—Another way of drilling upon the correct 
usage and also of supplying the correct form in elliptical sentences 
is that of having four pupils come to the front of the room. They 
are named as if, were, and blank. The teacher writes on the board, 

“ John looks-sick,” and asks which ones shall be chosen to fill 

“blank’s” place. The words are then properly arranged and an¬ 
other sentence is given as before. 

3. Looks. — (a) One child stands before the class saying, “ I feel 
happy. How do I look? ” The children, taking their cue from his 
statement, answer, “ You look as if you were going to the circus.” 
When their invention flags, another child is called to the front. He 
may vary the statement by saying, “ I feel tired; ” “ I feel angry; ” 
and the children shape their answers accordingly. * 

(b) Further drill is furnished by having a list of adjectives on 
the board— kind, happy, solid, sleepy, dusty. The children apply 
these to objects in the room in replying to the teacher’s question, 

“ How does the kitten in the picture look ? ” “It looks as if it were 
sleepy.” “ How does the road look? ” “ It looks as though it were 
dusty.” 

(c) If several pictures in which the children have definite, strong 
expression on their faces are provided, the teacher calls the attention 
of the pupils to their different expressions. “ How does this little 
boy look? ” “ He looks as if he were pleased.” Or one pupil may 
ask, “How does John look? ” The second pupil replies, “He looks 
as if he were sick.” Second pupil, “ How does John look? ” Third 
pupil, “ He looks as if he were tired.” “ How does John look? ” and 
so on indefinitely. 








SYNTACTICAL REDUNDANCE. 


81 


Chapter XVI. 

SYNTACTICAL REDUNDANCE. 


I. STORIES. 

Among the stories serviceable in the correction of syntactical re¬ 
dundance are the following: 

1. Boy Blue .—After telling the story of Little Boy Blue, the 
teacher says to the pupils that when the people could not find Little 
Boy Blue they asked, “ Where is he ? ” After that, whenever the 
incorrect form “ Where is he at ? ” is heard, she says, “ What did 
the people ask about Boy Blue ? ” The pupils answer “ Where is 
he?” 

2. Red Riding Hood .—In the story of Red Riding Hood the 
mother says to Little Red Riding Hood, “ You must go to your 
grandmother’s cottage.” Thereafter, when the expression “ You’ve 
got to go ” is heard, the teacher asks, “ What did Red Riding Hood’s 
mother say to her? ” “ You must go, not you have got to go.” 

3. Simple Simon. —Simple Simon when questioned as to his penny 
replies, “ I haven’t any.” When the expression “ I ain’t got no pen¬ 
cil” is heard, the teacher replies, “What did Simon tell the pie 
man ? ” 

4. Polly's Mistake .—The story of Polly’s Mistake, mentioned pre¬ 
viously, also affords drill on “ I haven’t any.” 

n. GAMES. 

1. Button, Button, Have You the Button ?—The game of Button, 
Button, or A Penny, a Penny, is commonly used to add in the cor¬ 
rection of “I ain’t got.” The central feature of the game is that 
some object is given to one among the many pupils. Another pupil 
who does not know who holds the objects guesses, asking, “ Have you 
the button ? ” The answers must be “ I haven’t it,” or “ I have it.” 

2. Shouting answers phrases. —Shouting phrases again appears. 
After some object has been given to one pupil the guesser returns. 
He asks, “ Who has the eraser?” and the chorus responds, “ I haven’t 
it,” all save the one voice which says, “ I have it.” With this clue 
the guessing begins. 

3. Have you a Pencil? —One child acts as leader. Several others 
hold small desk articles in their hands. The leader asks each one a 
question, always trying to ask about something he has not. “ Have 
you a pencil?” “No; I haven’t a pencil.” If at any time he asks a 
child about the object he has, the leader has failed, and a new one 
takes his place. 



82 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


4. Bean Bags. —In the midst of a bean bag or ball game the teacher 
may ask frequently, “John, have you the ball?” If the pupil answers 
incorrectly, he may forfeit his place in the game. 

5. How Many Grains? —The class is divided into two sides. Each 
child is given a certain number of beans or kernels of corn. One 
child then comes to the front of the class and tries to guess the num¬ 
ber of beans a child on the other side has. A score is kept of the 
correct number of guesses for each side, and the side with the greatest 
number wins. 

6. Who Has my Ball? —Pass one card to each pupil, using as many 
as desired for the game. 


ball 

clock 

hat 

candy 

doll 

vase 

gloves 

orange 

skates 

cap 

pencil 

cap 

apple 

box 

paint box 

purse 

book 

dollar 

rubbers 

watch 


The teacher retains a duplicate list and begins the game by saying, 
“ I have lost my ball; John, have you my ball?” John answers, “ No, 
Miss White; I haven’t your ball, but I think James has it.” (Nam¬ 
ing the pupil behind him.) 

The teacher then asks James the same question, to which he gives 
the same answer; this continues until the pupil who holds the card 
bearing the word hall is reached, when he answers, “ Yes, Miss 
White; I have your ball.” The teacher then says, “William, will 
you please return my ball to the box?” (This will be placed in a 
convenient place.) When it has been returned the teacher says, 
“ Thank you, William, for returning my ball.” If a child fails to 
respond when he holds the card, the teacher should take it away, 
saying, “ I am sorry Jennie found my ball, because she did not return 
it to me. We should always return things that we find.” 

T. She Has to Go. —To drill on She Has to Go, a leader is selected 
who sends a child to any point in the room, as “Alice, go to the 
window.” The children in the seats ask, “ Where does Alice have to 
go?” The leader answers, “Alice has to go to the window.” The 
same leader sends five children, unless he makes a mistake. Then 
another leader is chosen. 

8. Whose Boohs are These? —To help pupils form the habit of 
using those instead of those there this game is suggested: One pupil 
leaves the room. Another comes forward and lays two or more 
articles of the same kind on the teacher’s desk. At a given signal the 
pupil outside enters the room. The children at their seats ask in 
concert, “Whose books are those?” or, Whose pencils are those?” 
The answer is given in this form, “Those books are John’s; or, 
“ Those pencils are Mary’s.” If the answer is not correct, the class 


SYNTACTICAL REDUNDANCE. 


83 


repeats the question until three guesses have been made, after which a 
fresh “ guesser ” is chosen. 

9. Stop. —To correct such a habit as “ Louis, he ” the stopping game 
is played. This game is a continuous performance and is not played 
at set times as other games are played. When such an error occurs 
during an oral recitation the class “stops” the story by clapping 
hands. This is taken as a signal that the child reciting has stuttered 
or said “ Louis, he ” which is the same as saying “ he, he.” The pupils 
usually enjoy using this device, which has proved very effective. 

III. EXERCISES. 

1. What did he do? —The use of actions is limited largely to 
establishing the correct form for “ Louis, he was hurt.” The teacher 
writes on the board or gives several commands, as, “John, open 
the door.” “ Sam, pick up the book.” When the children designated 
have executed the commands, the teacher asks, “What did John 
do?” “What was John doing?” “What did Sam do?” “What 
was Sam doing? ” The answer is, “ John opened the door.” “ Sam 
picked up the book.” After such a drill the teacher continues: 
“ Yesterday in one of your written stories (or when Mary described 
the game, or whenever the error was made) this sentence was given: 
‘John, he put up the window.’ Did you say it that way just now in 
making statement telling what these people did ? ” By a few ques¬ 
tions here many children will soon see the mistake and tell what is 
wrong without help from the teacher. Or, John may walk down 
the aisle. As he does so, the teacher writes on the board: “ 1. John 
walked down the aisle. 2. He walks down the aisle. 3. John, he 
walks down the aisle.” Placing before the child the correct forms 
in sentences 1 and 2 makes him feel the incorrectness, as he ex¬ 
presses it, of repeating or doubling his subject. 

IV. DRILLS. 

1. Questions. —For drill on omitting here from the expression 
this here one child takes a pencil from the teacher’s desk. “Alice, 
point out and tell which boy took my pencil,” says Miss Smith. 
“This boy took your pencil,” replies Alice. Several children then 
take pencils. Once more Miss Smith inquires of Mary saying, 
“ Point out and tell which children took pencils please, Mary.” So 
Mary responds, “ These children took your pencils.” 

2. Discussion. —Such expressions as this here , those there , are 
often used by pupils coming from illiterate environments. In order 
not to reflect on the homes of the pupils, the matter must be handled 
tactfully. Sometimes the discussion may be a general one dealing 
with all or almost all cases of syntactical redundance. There may 


84 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS ENGLISH. 


be frequently discussions in class as to why such forms have come 
into our language. The pupils are asked to make note of similar 
expressions and to bring these to class. Playground workers may 
note and correct all they can outside of school. 

3. Lists. —Sometimes the children keep a list of these errors found 
in a week’s work in all their classes and at the end of the week make 
a class comparison. The teacher at times writes on the board such 
sentences as give the pupils trouble. These sentences are read aloud 
again and again; the exact meaning of each one is explained. The 
general principle is stated and restated. In writing or talking 
use no word that does not add something to the meaning. Use no 
useless words. 

4. Analysis. —Have the children test their sentences in this way: 
“ What word in your sentence is useless ? What word may be omitted 
without taking anything away from the meaning? Is an unneces¬ 
sary word used? Why is it unnecessary? Reread the sentence, 
omitting the useless words. What does the sentence mean now ? Is 
the meaning changed any by omitting the word?” In some cases, 
however, the sentence with the superfluous words is really absurd. 
After such explanations, when the mistake occurs, the pupil mak¬ 
ing it is asked to explain the exact meaning of what he said. Such 
analysis of the sentence containing the redundant words seldom fails 
to show the uselessness of them. One teacher finds the term “ wordi¬ 
ness words ” appropriate to them. “ With all such errors, usually 
the teacher’s criticism, 4 Your sentence contains a word not needed,’ 
produces an immediate remodeling.” The pupils are asked to find 
the needless words in sentences like the illustration given in the ques¬ 
tionnaire. Such a list is placed on the board. The class is asked to 
study each sentence carefully, and to decide which word or words 
could be left out without destroying the sense of the sentence. 

5. Visual representation. —A visual representation of this error 
sometimes helps. The teacher explains that “ We have put 4 ain’t 
got ’ or 4 this here ’ in a cage so it can not escape.” The pupils then 
cage all the superfluous words in the sentences. After the correc¬ 
tions are made, the- sentences are read and reread. 44 Since this is a 
common mistake in oral composition but extremely rare in written 
work,” comments another paper, 44 these errors should be corrected 
orally by having the child say sentences correctly, being careful to 
omit an unnecessary word.” 44 Pupils should be led to see that the use 
of superfluous words makes ill-sounding sentences, and that they who 
would use good English must not be guilty of using unnecessary 
words.” 44 We try to realize that good English also has its com¬ 
mercial value in these days of practical education.” 


CONFUSION DUE TO SIMILARITY OF SOUNDS. 85 

Chapter XVII. 

CONFUSION OF PARTS OF SPEECH DUE TO SIMILARITY 

OF SOUND. 

I. RHYMES. 

1. To, too, two. —Here is a jingle which never fails to arouse inter¬ 
est and which, being dictated, or written on the blackboard and 
copied, serves to emphasize the use of two, too , and to: 

The question at issue that divided us two 
Was how to spell rightly the little word “ to.” 

So we wrote to two scholars to learn what to do, 

And, strange the agreement, they spelled it to, too. 

II. GAMES. 

1. Spell it. —Sentences with blanks instead of to, too, two, or their, 
there are placed on the board. The children choose sides. One pupil 
says to, and the pupil opposite him must place the word in the cor¬ 
rect blank. The game is carried on until all the blanks are filled. 

2. Mother Cat—Correct use of There are. —The teacher selects 
Mary for the Mother Cat. She touches six children who come for¬ 
ward and are mice in the trap. All the other children are kittens. 
Mother Cat: “ All the kittens must go to sleep.” While they are 
sleeping two of the mice run away and hide. The Mother Cat then 
wakens the kittens and asks, “ How many mice were there in the 
trap ? ” “ There were six mice in the trap.” Mother Cat to an¬ 
other kitten: “ How many mice are there now ? ” “ There are 
four mice now.” If both kittens answer correctly, they may find the 
hidden mice. The kittens sleep again while one, three, four, or five 
mice may be caught, thus changing the number in the trap. If the 
Mother Cat makes a mistake, a new cat is chosen. 

3. What Are They Doing ?—In drilling upon they for there, and 
vice versa, the game is played in which several children act as if 
washing clothes, going to sleep, etc. The other children guess what 
they are doing: “ They are washing clothes.” 

III. EXERCISES. 

1. Dictation. —Six children are sent to the board, one from each 
row. A sentence is dictated, such as, “ The two boys came to school 
too late,” or, “ Their house is over there.” The mistakes are checked; 
score is kept for each row. The winning row is the one with the 
lowest score. 

2. The Four Circles. —Four circles are drawn on the blackboard. 
In one circle is written to, in another too, in another two, and in the 


86 


GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 


fourth 'prison or hospital, where those who are weak in language go. 
The teacher allows a minute for the pupils to think of an interesting 
sentence containing some form of to, too, two. Then beginning 
with a row, the first pupil comes forward, gives his sentence, and 
places a mark in the circle showing the word he used. While he is 
marking his word the second pupil is giving his sentence. If the 
wrong word is marked, it has to be erased and put in the hospital 
circle. 

3. Cards. —The teacher prepares a set of cards containing to, too, 
or two, one word on each card. Of these several uses may be made: 

(a) Let each pupil draw a card, come to the front of the room, 
and give a sentence containing the word on his card. Next he 
chooses a pupil to spell the word he used. If correct, that pupil takes 
his place as teacher, gives his sentence, and calls upon another child 
to spell his word. 

( b ) The pupils without drawing any cards are asked to give 
sentences containing this word, After the sentence is given, the pupil 
spells his to; if he spells it correctly be secures that card, which he 
may keep on his desk until the lesson is over; otherwise the card 
remains in the pack and another sentence is given. By changing 
cards, both of these games may also be used for there and their. 

(c) Distribute one card to each pupil. He spells his “ 2 ” orally 
or writes it on the board with his word. Later he uses it in a sen¬ 
tence. In higher grades the sentence should be given at once and the 
word spelled as, u He changes too much, t-o-o.” 


2 much 
2 school 
2 apples 
2 sing 
2 dollars 


2 silly 
2 church 
2 quiet 
2 play 
2 books 


2 easy 
2 work 
2 lazy 
2 slow 
2 stores 


2 read 
2 dinner 
2 dimes 
2 solemn 
2 fast 


2 write 
2 noisy 
2 sing 


IV. DRILLS. 


1. Spelling. —The confusion of parts of speech due to similarity 
of sound is, perhaps in most cases, a matter of spelling; although 
in others, as would of, it is also a matter of lack of comprehension 
and careless enunciation. 

A Washington teacher testifies: “ Could have, there was, would 
have, to (go), too (cold), two (books), their (books), (over) there, 
these combinations ought to be given in spelling lists, instead of as 
single words. Washington pupils used to make a great many mis¬ 
takes with such expressions as used to and have to. Since these ex¬ 
pressions have been included in the spelling lists, improvement has 
been noticeable.” Another teacher thus comments upon his method 
of using these words in the spelling lessons: “ I use a few minutes 
each day to develop some one of these groups, as they for there; to, 


CONFUSION DUE TO SIMILARITY OF SOUNDS. 


87 


too, two, of for have. Then, at the end of the written spelling les¬ 
son, I give as many sentences as words in the group taught that 
day. For instance, if I teach to, too, two in the morning, then at 
the close of the written spelling I give three short sentences or in 
some other way use those three words. Mary went to the library with 
two books. Did John go, too? Homonj^ms are taught in connection 
with spelling; and many dictation exercises are given to illustrate 
the use of such words as their, there, to, too, two. Let the pupils 
understand thoroughly they will be graded down on spelling every 
time they use one of these words incorrectly. Above all, never fail 
to make a pupil rewrite a sentence every time one of these words 
occurs in it misspelled.” 

2. Enunciation — (a) Avoidance of contractions. —Many such mis¬ 
takes as “ I could of gone,” “ They was a fairy,” “ Who’d a thought,” 
are due to the fact that the children have failed to understand cor¬ 
rectly. Oftentimes the expressions have developed because of the in¬ 
distinct enunciation of many adults. “ The correct expression must 
again be placed before the children; they must pronounce slowly 
and clearly, ‘ I could have gone,’ ‘ Once there was a fairy.’ ” Their 
ears are not keen, and they have heard the contractions slurred so 
often that they are unconscious of error. “ I’ve seen,” for instance, 
indistinctly pronounced, often carries as “I seen” to the children. 
“ Who’d have thought it ? ” voiced by a careless speaker often seems, 
“ Who’d a thought it ? ” Children ought to be asked to avoid contrac¬ 
tions, and teachers should also avoid contractions. It may at times 
seem stilted expression to use invariably “I have seen,” “We are 
not,” but the children had better hear this form than careless slur¬ 
ring. By rewriting the sentences on the board with the incorrect 
word correctly written in capitals, “ I could HAVE gone,” “ Once 
THERE was a fairy,” “Who’d HAVE thought it,” the doubtful 
word becomes obvious and the meaning clear. 

(h) Repetition. —“ The first three errors are probably the result of 
poor enunciation. This I drill upon continually in reading; also I 
never accept a recitation which is not clearly enunciated to be heard 
and understood all over the classroom. It is necessary to make the 
pupils do things correctly and accurately at all times.” “ The repeti¬ 
tion of difficult sentences and parts of sentence combinations serves 
as effective drill in enunciation; it is also of assistance by means of 
keeping the correct form before the pupils; 1 1 could have gone; he 
could have stayed; we could have come.’ 1 Once there were three billy 
goats.’ ‘ Once there was a little boy.’ 4 Once there was a cat.’ ‘ Who 
would have done it? ’ 4 Who would have thought it?’ ” 

3. Oral composition. —Oral composition, developed by allowing pu¬ 
pils to tell some of their own experiences, is one of the most efficacious 


88 GAMES FOR IMPROVING PUPILS* ENGLISH. 

ways of correcting this habit of speech. Unconsciously the pupils 
make use of these expressions. After they are through with their 
stories the class corrects the errors. “ Only by persistent and faithful 
effort on the part of the teacher, and cooperation on the part of each 
pupil, can success be attained.” 

4. Analysis. —Several methods of correction are suggested: Some 
of these involve the analysis of the sentence, or the parts of speech 
and functions of the incorrectly used words. The teacher asks if of 
or a is ever a verb form, if there is an adverb, etc. Sometimes the 
pupil writes a sentence on the blackboard and is corrected by another 
pupil. He then erases the incorrect form, writes the correct one, 
erases it, repeats it, and writes it once more on the board. 

5. Summary. —There follow two sets of suggestions which may 
prove helpful: 

(A) First set: (1) Let the pupils bring as many words as possible 
that sound alike but are different in meaning and spelling. 

(2) Dictate sentences, letting children supply the correct words. 

(3) Give the spelling of the word and have it used in a sentence. 

(4) To overcome defects in speech: 

(a) Give tongue exercises showing proper position of the necessary 
organs involved in producing correct sounds. 

( b) Give special attention to ear training. 

( c) Give exercise to correct careless pronunciation and enunciation. 

( d ) Don’t allow mumbling. 

(13) Second set: (1) Eepetition of correct form after the teacher. 

Pupil. I could of gone. 

Teacher. I could have gone. 

Pupil. I could have gone. 

(2) Writing of such form on the board. 

Pupil. Who’d a thought it? 

Teacher (on board). Who would have thought it? 

Pupil . Who would have thought it ? 

(3) Study of sentences containing to , too , two . 

I go to school. 

John is too young to go. 

Two boys are not too tired to go. 

(4) Dictation of sentences similar to those above. 

(5) Filling blanks in sentences. 

(6) Writing original sentences containing the word “studied.” 


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